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. 2023 Apr 7;11(4):98. doi: 10.3390/dj11040098

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Hierarchical structure of human enamel and properties with and without caries. (a) Schematic of the mineralisation process of HAp from protein, mineral, and ions (reproduced from Robinson C. et al. [47], Copyright © 2017, license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (b) Synchrotron and electron microscopy images of the structure of enamel from macro to nano scale in a carious enamel sample (modified from [39], license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (c) Characterisation of non-carious enamel, (c1) lattice parameter a and c distribution in enamel (adapted from [89] with permission. Copyright 2007, Elsevier). (c2) Distribution of hardness and Young’s modulus in enamel (adapted from [133] with permission. Copyright 2002, Elsevier). (d) Characterisation results of carious enamel samples using various techniques of (d1) elastic modulus mapping from a white spot lesion (adapted from [134] with permission. Copyright 2010, Elsevier). (d2) Polarised light microscopy (adapted from [135] with permission. Copyright 2008, John Wiley and Sons). (d3,d4) SEM image and 3D rendering of slice and view of a FIB milled cross-sections of carious enamel, showing preferential demineralisation (adapted from [39], license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (d5) Correlative imaging with various imaging modes (light, electron microscopy and X-ray synchrotron) (adapted from [39], license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (d6,d7) Virtual slices from synchrotron tomography data showing a carious lesion in enamel (adapted from [39], license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (d8) 3D rendering of carious enamel and details of the spacing between rods (adapted from [57] with permission. Copyright 2021, Elsevier). (d9) Map of the mass density of a white spot lesion (adapted from [134] with permission. Copyright 2010, Elsevier). (d10) Raman spectroscopy mapping of enamel and dentine with a carious lesion (reproduced from [136] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry, license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (d11) Combined image of XRF showing calcium Kα fluorescence intensity and ptychography of human carious enamel, highlighting the correlation between structural and chemical analysis (adapted from [78], license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ accessed on 30 March 2023). (d12) TEM image showing the dissolution of the core of the crystallite and amorphous central dark line (adapted from [88] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier). (d13) APT of carious enamel with the 3D distribution of Mg (adapted from [88] with permission. Copyright 2020, Elsevier).