Fig. 1.

Competitive exclusion mechanism of action offered by LAB biofilms against pathogens bacteria: (A) Jameson effect, (i) pathogenic bacteria and LAB are both competing for nutrients, (ii) LAB win the competitions and develop biofilms that prevent pathogenic nutrients consumptions, (iii) eventually pathogenic cell death occurs due to lack of nutrients. (B) Spatial competitions. (i) Nutrients spatial competitions between LAB and pathogenic bacteria (ii) metabolic active LAB cell form biofilms and restrict pathogenic bacteria at the bottom layer of biofilms, inactive pathogenic bacteria cells develop due to insufficient nutrient supply, (iii) inhibition of pathogenic growth occur.