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The afferent gut-to-brain axis. Microbial peptides and metabolites interact with peripheral receptors and modulate ascending sensory neurons through vagal and spinal pathways, which then act on neural circuits in the brain. Humoral factors may also enter the brain to modulate function of neurons and glia. Gut dysbiosis, characterised by unfavourable alterations of the gut microbial biochemistry, perturbs physiological gut-brain communication and causes diseases.
