Figure 6.

Cancer immunotherapies. Different approaches are highlighted. (A) Immune-checkpoint inhibitors: anti-PD-1/anti-PD-L1 and anti-CTLA4. (B) Blockade of chemokines/chemokine receptors within the TME to inhibit cancer growth or the recruitment of immune-suppressor cells. (C) Cell-based immunotherapies, such as the use of genetically modified T-cell receptors to recognize tumor-antigen-bounded MHC molecules and block cancer-escape pathways, in addition to NKs, MSCs, and TIL cells that are genetically modified to trigger the proliferation and development of immune cells. (D) Antiangiogenic inhibitors reprogram aberrant blood vessels and facilitate the infiltration of the TME by immune cells. (E) Metabolite inhibitors, such as adenosine inhibitors (A2a- and A2b-receptor antagonists). (F) Cytokine therapy provoking immunity in melanoma and renal cancer (IL-2). (G) Different forms of cancer vaccine to encounter immune cells. (H) Modulation of epigenetic changes, such as the epithelial–mesenchymal transition and gene methylation. (I) Gut microbiota to improve the response to ICI therapy. Created with BioRender.com.