Table 2.
Clinical outcome measures and inferential statistics.
| Measurements | Baseline | Post Intervention |
Between-Group Comparison | Treatment Effect | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean ± SD */ N (%) § |
Mean ± SD */N (%) § | Adjusted Mean †/OR ‡ | 95% CI | F Value (df) | p Value | Adjusted Mean with 95% CI | |
| Primary Outcome | |||||||
| FMA–UE | |||||||
| Control | 18.57 ± 11.47 | 24.83 ± 15.10 | 24.79 | 22.23–27.35 | 4.328 (66) | 0.017 | 6.26 (3.70–8.82) |
| URT | 17.91 ± 11.56 | 25.30 ± 13.99 | 25.97 | 23.57–28.36 | 7.44 (5.04–9.83) | ||
| BRT | 19.08 ± 9.17 | 32.00 ± 11.44 | 31.40 | 27.74–35.07 | 12.88 (9.21–16.54) | ||
| Secondary Outcome | |||||||
| MBI Total Score | |||||||
| Control | 54.74 ± 13.44 | 63.13 ± 16.31 | 62.75 | 59.42–66.09 | 5.266 (66) | 0.008 | 8.48 (4.56–12.41) |
| URT | 53.52 ± 12.82 | 63.74 ± 11.54 | 64.34 | 61.01–67.68 | 10.07 (7.31–12.84) | ||
| BRT | 54.54 ± 11.67 | 70.17 ± 10.27 | 69.95 | 66.69–73.21 | 15.68 (12.55–18.80) | ||
| RMS_biceps brachii bundle | |||||||
| Control | 120.76 ± 81.50 | 157.86 ± 110.82 | 162.55 | 138.60–186.50 | 0.283 (64) | 0.755 | 36.99 (13.04–60.94) |
| URT | 128.30 ± 96.44 | 160.25 ± 95.57 | 157.57 | 129.82–185.33 | 32.01 (4.26–59.77) | ||
| BRT | 127.76 ± 76.76 | 174.72 ± 104.55 | 172.57 | 144.35–200.79 | 47.01 (18.79–75.23) | ||
| RMS_anterior deltoid bundle | |||||||
| Control | 148.47 ± 119.00 | 177.61 ± 131.79 | 170.77 | 148.97–192.58 | 5.664 (64) | 0.006 | 30.05 (8.25–51.86) |
| URT | 139.19 ± 114.10 | 177.70 ± 115.11 | 179.05 | 156.03–202.07 | 38.33 (15.31–61.35) | ||
| BRT | 134.63 ± 75.72 | 252.41 ± 116.69 | 257.79 | 211.45–304.12 | 117.07 (70.73–163.40) | ||
| RMS_middle deltoid | |||||||
| Control | 159.09 ± 103.13 | 206.04 ± 156.59 | 202.11 | 156.84–247.38 | 1.317 (64) | 0.275 | 47.42 (6.37–88.47) |
| URT | 134.80 ± 108.52 | 225.89 ± 163.69 | 243.63 | 196.02–291.25 | 88.94 (33.81–144.07) | ||
| BRT | 167.88 ± 113.33 | 261.69 ± 112.02 | 249.92 | 205.50–294.35 | 95.23 (49.71- 140.75) | ||
| RMS_triceps brachii bundle | |||||||
| Control | 73.40 ± 54.73 | 126.23 ± 100.02 | 135.55 | 107.21–163.88 | 0.458 (64) | 0.635 | 52.42 (18.58–86.26) |
| URT | 77.41 ± 63.15 | 114.25 ± 90.48 | 119.72 | 90.13–149.30 | 36.59 (8.74–64.45) | ||
| BRT | 97.44 ± 89.06 | 131.85 ± 95.84 | 118.14 | 90.29–146.00 | 35.02 (10.98–59.06) | ||
| iEMG_biceps brachii bundle | |||||||
| Control | 93.87 ± 64.75 | 122.05 ± 87.77 | 125.06 | 105.61–144.51 | 0.148 (64) | 0.863 | 28.13 (8.68–47.58) |
| URT | 100.15 ± 74.21 | 125.24 ± 74.96 | 122.08 | 99.50–144.67 | 25.15 (2.57–47.73) | ||
| BRT | 97.06 ± 61.55 | 131.62 ± 90.08 | 131.49 | 105.96–157.02 | 34.56 (9.02–60.09) | ||
| iEMG_anterior deltoid bundle | |||||||
| Control | 118.28 ± 95.42 | 138.37 ± 101.79 | 132.09 | 114.51–149.68 | 6.812 (64) | 0.002 | 21.69 (4.10–39.27) |
| URT | 109.22 ± 90.30 | 129.43 ± 67.98 | 130.38 | 107.50–153.26 | 19.97 (−2.91–42.86) | ||
| BRT | 103.90 ± 56.95 | 196.83 ± 96.77 | 202.01 | 167.09–236.94 | 91.61 (56.68–126.53) | ||
| iEMG_middle deltoid | |||||||
| Control | 127.10 ± 88.57 | 161.80 ± 125.66 | 157.49 | 117.63–197.35 | 1.865 (64) | 0.163 | 36.79 (−2.98–76.56) |
| URT | 102.84 ± 78.95 | 156.02 ± 80.47 | 168.03 | 126.07–210.00 | 47.34 (22.54–72.13) | ||
| BRT | 130.19 ± 89.27 | 214.99 ± 118.95 | 208.60 | 169.53–247.67 | 87.90 (40.29–135.52) | ||
| iEMG_triceps brachii bundle | |||||||
| Control | 52.24 ± 40.46 | 93.25 ± 76.31 | 97.71 | 70.05–125.37 | 0.104 (64) | 0.901 | 38.06 (6.65–69.48) |
| URT | 53.45 ± 44.97 | 85.87 ± 67.30 | 89.60 | 60.70–118.51 | 29.96 (3.72–56.19) | ||
| BRT | 72.17 ± 64.3 | 97.79 ± 73.30 | 90.25 | 62.98–117.52 | 30.60 (7.39–53.82) | ||
| MEP (response) | |||||||
| Control | 8 (34.8%) | 11 (47.8.0%) | Reference | ||||
| URT | 7 (30.4%) | 11 (47.8.0%) | 1.82 | 0.29–15.25 | 0.54 | ||
| BRT | 6 (25.0%) | 15 (62.5%) | 5 | 0.93–39.81 | 0.08 | ||
* Continuous variables in the outcome indicators are expressed as Mean ± SD. § For MEP, the frequency and percentage of MEP elicitation are provided. † Continuous outcome variables were analyzed by covariance analysis, adjusted for baseline, and estimated least squares means (LSMEAN) and 95% CI for each group after intervention. ‡ MEP (elicitation: elicitation here means outcome = 1) outcomes were estimated using longitudinal logistic regression, linking logit functions to adjust the baseline and yielding OR values with 95% CI. BRT, bilateral robotic training; CI credit interval; FMA–UE, Fugl-Meyer Assessment–Upper Extremities; iEMG, integrated electromyographic; MBI, Modified Barthel Index; MEP, Motor Evoked Potential; RMS, root mean square; SD, standard deviation; URT, unilateral robotic training.