Table 4.
Consumption of the pharmacological supplements during pregnancy and the lactation of the omnivore human milk donors with full-term infants (Donors) and vegetarian/vegan lactating mothers (Veg).
| Pharmacological Supplement | n (%) | p Value | Daily Dose, Mean (SE); Range | p Value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Donors (n = 92) | Veg (n = 20) | Donors (n = 92) | Veg (n = 20) | |||
| Vitamin A, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 12 (13.0) | 3 (15.0) | 0.732 | 527.6 (69.7); 23.0–700.0 | 383.3 (174.0); 100.0–700.0 | 0.389 |
| Lactation | 45 (48.9) | 3 (15.0) | 0.002 | |||
| Previously | 14 (15.2) | 2 (10.0) | 730.9 (49.2); 333.0–1000.0 | 250.0 (150.0); 100.0–400.0 | 0.022 | |
| Currently | 31 (33.7) | 1 (5.0) | 678.1 (45.2); 160.0–1000.0 | 800.0 (-); 800.0–800.0 | 0.729 | |
| Vitamin D, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 50 (54.3) | 10 (50.0) | 0.687 | 10.61 (0.8); 3.8–30.0 | 17.08 (6.2); 5.0–62.5 | 0.925 |
| Lactation | 52 (56.5) | 9 (45.0) | 0.220 | |||
| Previously | 15 (16.3) | 2 (10.0) | 5.0 (0.4); 2.5–10.0 | 6.2 (3.7); 2.5–10.0 | 0.926 | |
| Currently | 37 (40.2) | 7 (35.0) | 6.0 (0.8); 1.0–25.0 | 27.4 (9.0); 5.0–62.5 | 0.001 | |
| Vitamin E, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 22 (23.9) | 7 (35.0) | 0.318 | 10.7 (0.7); 1.8–15.0 | 11. (2.0); 4.0–20.0 | 0.762 |
| Lactation | 49 (53.3) | 6 (30.0) | 0.030 | |||
| Previously | 15 (16.3) | 2 (10.0) | 11.5 (0.5); 6.0–15.0 | 13.0 (7.0); 6.0–20.0 | 0.926 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 4 (20.0) | 10.9 (0.6); 2.4–16.0 | 11.0 (0.6); 10.0–12.0 | 0.542 | |
| Vitamin C, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 10 (50.0) | 0.823 | 61.1 (4.2); 12.0–180.0 | 93.6 (30.6); 26.0–358.0 | 0.336 |
| Lactation | 51 (55.4) | 7 (35.0) | 0.050 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 80.0 (4.2); 40.0–110.0 | 60.0 (20.0); 40.0–100.0 | 0.260 | |
| Currently | 35 (38.0) | 4 (20.0) | 73.5 (4.2); 16.0–125.0 | 65.0 (8.7); 50.0–80.0 | 0.492 | |
| Vitamin B1, thiamine, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 9 (45.0) | 0.530 | 1.1 (0.0); 0.6–1.5 | 3.3 (1.7); 0.9–17.0 | 0.038 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 8 (40.0) | 0.149 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 1.0 (0.1); 0.6–1.2 | 2.8 (1.1); 0.6–4.3 | 0.221 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 0.9 (0.1); 0.2–1.1 | 10.8 (9.8); 0.9–50.0 | 0.431 | |
| Vitamin B2, riboflavin, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 9 (45.0) | 0.530 | 1.4 (0.0); 0.7–2.5 | 2.4 (0.8); 1.0–8.5 | 0.060 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 8 (40.0) | 0.149 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 1.3 (0.1); 0.7–1.6 | 2.9 (1.2); 0.7–5.0 | 0.272 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 1.3 (0.1); 0.7–1.6 | 5.0 (3.8); 1.0–20.0 | 0.750 | |
| Vitamin B3, niacin, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 8 (40.0) | 0.301 | 15.6 (0.4); 4.0–20.0 | 17.4 (2.6); 10.0–33.0 | 0.375 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 8 (40.0) | 0.149 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 15.0 (0.7); 8.0–16.0 | 14.0 (3.1); 8.0–18.0 | 0.718 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 13.3 (0.7); 3.2–16.0 | 11.4 (2.1); 5.0–16.0 | 0.403 | |
| Vitamin B5, pantothenic, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 8 (40.0) | 0.301 | 5.7 (0.2); 4.0–20.0 | 8.9 (3.2); 5.0–31.0 | 0.923 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 8 (40.0) | 0.149 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 5.6 (0.3); 3.0–6.0 | 6.3 (2.0); 3.0–10.0 | 0.718 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 5.1 (0.2); 2.8–6.0 | 24.4 (18.9); 5.0–100.0 | 0.488 | |
| Vitamin B6, pyridoxine, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 9 (45.0) | 0.530 | 1.4 (0.0); 0.7–2.2 | 3.6 (1.5); 0.8–2.5 | 0.533 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 8 (40.0) | 0.149 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 1.4 (0.1); 0.7–2.2 | 3.0 (1.4); 0.7–5.4 | 0.249 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 1.3 (0.1); 0.3–2.0 | 3.6 (2.2); 1.3–12.5 | 0.617 | |
| Vitamin B7, biotin, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 8 (40.0) | 0.301 | 55.3 (2.9); 25.0–150.0 | 117.1 (20.1); 50.0–187.0 | <0.001 |
| Lactation | 50 (54.3) | 7 (35.0) | 0.063 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 2 (10.0) | 47.5 (2.3); 25.0–60.0 | 37.5 (12.5); 25.0–50−0 | 0.208 | |
| Currently | 34 (37.0) | 5 (25.0) | 42.3 (2.1); 10.0–50.0 | 116.0 (27.5); 50.0–180.0 | 0.002 | |
| Vitamin B9, folic acid, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 89 (96.7) | 20 (100.0) | 0.999 | 603.6 (93.5); 162.0–6200.0 | 636.5 (229.9); 286.0–5000.0 | 0.990 |
| Lactation | 75 (81.5) | 13 (65.0) | 0.022 | |||
| Previously | 19 (20.7) | 6 (30.0) | 272.4 (24.3); 100–400 | 416.7 (91.0); 100.0–800.0 | 0.094 | |
| Currently | 56 (60.9) | 7 (35.0) | 280.1 (16.2); 2.0–400 | 400.0 (21.8); 300.0–500.0 | 0.011 | |
| Vitamin B12, cobalamin, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 88 (95.7) | 20 (100.0) | 0.999 | 2.3 (0.1); 0.95–4.7 | 213.5 (55.8); 1.2–934.0 | 0.002 |
| Lactation | 74 (80.4) | 18 (90.0) | 0.683 | |||
| Previously | 19 (20.7) | 1 (5.0) | 2.4 (0.1); 1.3–3.5 | 2.0 (-); 2.0–2.0 | 0.213 | |
| Currently | 55 (59.8) | 17 (85.0) | 2.1 (0.1); 1.0–2.5 | 312.1 (48.0); 2.0–857.0 | <0.001 | |
| Iodine, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 89 (96.7) | 19 (95.0) | 0.452 | 199.0 (3.9); 46.5–400.0 | 177.7 (10.1); 75.0–229.4 | 0.076 |
| Lactation | 78 (84.8) | 12 (60.0) | 0.001 | |||
| Previously | 18 (19.6) | 5 (25.0) | 191.7 (6.1); 100.0–200.0 | 185.8 (22.2); 100.0–229.0 | 0.693 | |
| Currently | 60 (65.2) | 7 (35.0) | 183.2 (5.9); 46.0–300.0 | 157.1 (22.3); 75.0–200.0 | 0.101 | |
| Calcium, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 3 (3.3) | 4 (20.0) | 0.019 | 62.0 (44.1); 12.0–150.0 | 391.8 (149.7); 100.0–650.0 | 0.075 |
| Lactation | 37 (40.2) | 5 (25.0) | 0.144 | |||
| Previously | 12 (13.0) | 2 (10.0) | 180.8 (17.1); 24.0–245.0 | 225.0 (125.0); 100.0–350.0 | 0.749 | |
| Currently | 25 (27.2) | 3 (15.0) | 164.0 (17.9); 40.0–500.0 | 566.7 (83.3); 400.0–650.0 | 0.004 | |
| Iron, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 67 (72.8) | 15 (75.0) | 0.899 | 45.6 (3.6); 6.5–108.0 | 46.9 (6.0); 9.0–80.0 | 0.540 |
| Lactation | 66 (71.7) | 10 (50.0) | 0.021 | |||
| Previously | 26 (28.3) | 5 (25.0) | 39.9 (6.3); 7.0–105.0 | 69.0 (7.0); 47.0–80.0 | 0.061 | |
| Currently | 40 (43.5) | 5 (25.0) | 29.2 (5.3); 3.0–114.0 | 40.4 (16.2); 14.0–80.0 | 0.302 | |
| Zinc, mg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 44 (47.8) | 8 (40.0) | 0.498 | 9.7 (0.2); 4.3–15.0 | 11.9 (2.1); 7.5–25.0 | 0.603 |
| Lactation | 48 (52.2) | 7 (35.0) | 0.097 | |||
| Previously | 16 (17.4) | 3 (15.0) | 9.2 (0.5); 5.0–10.0 | 13.3 (6.0); 5.0–25.0 | 0.718 | |
| Currently | 32 (34.8) | 4 (20.0) | 8.3 (0.5); 2.0–10.0 | 7.8 (1.0); 5.0–10.0 | 0.302 | |
| Selenium, mcg | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 42 (45.7) | 7 (35.0) | 0.363 | 52.3 (1.3); 27.0–60.0 | 40.0 (8.0); 12.5–60.0 | 0.173 |
| Lactation | 46 (50.0) | 6 (30.0) | 0.054 | |||
| Previously | 15 (16.3) | 2 (10.0) | 26.8 (4.0); 10.0–55.0 | 32.5 (22.5); 10.0–55.0 | 0.937 | |
| Currently | 31 (33.7) | 4 (20.0) | 27.1 (3.4); 4.0–55.0 | 34.0 (12.1); 13.0–55.0 | 0.579 | |
| Omega 3, g | ||||||
| Pregnancy | 48 (52.2) | 6 (30.0%) | 0.065 | 0.23 (0.02); 0.16–0.95 | 0.21 (0.04); 0.10–0.38 | 0.550 |
| Lactation | 48 (52.2) | 7 (35.0%) | 0.097 | |||
| DHA, g | ||||||
| Lactation | ||||||
| Previously | 15 (16.3) | 2 (10.0%) | 0.18 (0.01); 0.08–0.20 | 0.10 (-); 0.10–0.10 | 0.102 | |
| Currently | 33 (35.9) | 5 (25.0%) | 0.18 (0.01); 0.10–0.38 | 0.18 (0.03); 0.10–0.25 | 0.546 | |
| EPA, g | ||||||
| Lactation | ||||||
| Previously | 15 (16.3) | 2 (10.0) | 0.03 (0.00); 0.00–0.04 | 0.02 (-); 0.02–0.02 | 0.332 | |
| Currently | 33 (35.9) | 5 (25.0) | 0.05 (0.02); 0.00–0.50 | 0.15 (0.12); 0.00–0.64 | 0.727 | |
The quantitative variables are presented as means (standard error of the mean). The ranges are displayed after the semicolons. The qualitative variables are expressed as the absolute and relative frequencies (%). Women who took supplements during lactation but had stopped taking them at the time of the study were classified in the “Previously” group. Women who were still taking supplements at the time of the study were classified in the “Currently” group. Abbreviations: SE, standard error of the mean; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; and EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid.