Table 5.
Diet survey: five-day dietary record. Daily nutrients intake of the omnivore human milk donors with full-term infants (Donors) and vegetarian/vegan lactating mothers (Veg), compared with recommended daily intakes.
| Donors (n = 92) | Veg (n = 20) | p Value | Recommendations a | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EFSA (PRI/AI *) | IOM (RDA/AI *) | ||||
| Energy (Kcal) | 2318.66 (43.49) | 2146.73 (85.06) | 0.079 | b | |
| Protein (g) | 96.36 (1.95) | 67.46 (3.12) | <0.001 | c | 71 |
| Total fat (g) | 102.66 (2.62) | 85.81 (4.55) | 0.004 | ||
| Saturated fat (g) | 33.12 (1.01) | 19.88 (1.51) | <0.001 | ALAP | ALAP |
| Polyunsaturated fat (g) | 16.29 (0.58) | 21.00 (1.42) | 0.001 | ||
| Monounsaturated fat (g) | 43.94 (1.21) | 38.06 (2.48) | 0.040 | ||
| PUFAs/SFAs | 0.54 (0.02) | 1.28 (0.11) | <0.001 | ||
| (PUFAs + MUFAs)/SFAs | 1.94 (0.05) | 3.54 (0.23) | <0.001 | ||
| Kcal from carbohydrate (%) | 43.76 (0.60) | 51.83 (0.92) | <0.001 | 45–60 ** | 45–65 ** |
| Kcal from protein (%) | 16.84 (0.26) | 12.65 (0.45) | <0.001 | 10–35 ** | |
| Kcal from fat (%) | 39.24 (0.60) | 35.29 (0.95) | 0.003 | 20–35 ** | 20–35 ** |
| Kcal from saturated fat (%) | 12.66 (0.23) | 8.18 (0.54) | <0.001 | ||
| Kcal from polyunsaturated fat (%) | 6.30 (0.19) | 8.72 (0.35) | <0.001 | ||
| Kcal from monounsaturated fat (%) | 16.81 (0.33) | 15.72 (0.67) | 0.239 | ||
| Kcal from n-3 fatty acids (%) | 0.84 (0.03) | 0.89 (0.10) | 0.858 | 0.5 | 0.6–1.2 |
| n-6 fatty acids (g) | 13.64 (0.51) | 18.27 (1.28) | <0.001 | 13 * | |
| n-3 fatty acids (g) | 2.11 (0.09) | 2.37 (0.31) | 0.846 | 1.3 * | |
| n-6/n-3 fatty acids | 7.77 (0.27) | 9.90 (0.69) | 0.002 | ||
| Myristic acid C14:0 (g) | 2.86 (0.14) | 1.28 (0.26) | <0.001 | ||
| Palmitic acid C16:0 (g) | 16.52 (0.50) | 8.40 (0.67) | <0.001 | ||
| Palmitoleic acid C16:1 n7 (g) | 1.55 (0.06) | 0.42 (0.06) | <0.001 | ||
| Stearic acid C18:0 (g) | 7.07 (0.23) | 3.53 (0.33) | <0.001 | ||
| Oleic acid C18:1n9c (g) | 40.58 (1.16) | 36.40 (2.35) | 0.106 | ||
| Linoleic acid C18:2n6c (g) | 13.45 (0.51) | 18.25 (1.28) | <0.001 | ||
| Linolenic acid C18:3n3 (g) | 1.58 (0.07) | 2.24 (0.30) | 0.016 | ||
| Eicosapentaenoic acid C20:5n3 (g) | 0.15 (0.02) | 0.04 (0.02) | <0.001 | ||
| Docosapentaenoic acid C22:5n3 (g) | 0.08 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.00) | <0.001 | ||
| Docosahexaenoic acid C22:6n3 (g) | 0.38 (0.03) | 0.11 (0.03) | <0.001 | +0.10–0.20 *d | |
| EPA + DHA (g) | 0.53 (0.04) | 0.14 (0.04) | <0.001 | 0.25 * | |
| Trans fatty acids (g) | 0.44 (0.02) | 0.13 (0.03) | <0.001 | ALAP | ALAP |
| Cholesterol (g) | 334.42 (10.56) | 58.60 (17.24) | <0.001 | ALAP | |
| Cholesterol (mg/1000 Kcal) | 144.96 (4.03) | 28.90 (8.45) | <0.001 | ||
| Thiamine (B1) (mg) | 2.02 (0.07) | 4.75 (2.46) | 0.056 | 0.1 mg/MJ | 1.4 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) (mg) | 2.55 (0.09) 2.40 (1.70, 3.20) 1 |
2.95 (0.98) 1.70 (1.20, 2.80) 1 |
0.024 | 2.0 | 1.6 |
| Niacin (B3) (mg) | 43.21 (1.09) | 31.24 (1.75) | <0.001 | 1.6 mg/MJ e | 17 mg e |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg) | 7.93 (0.31) | 12.28 (4.94) | 0.551 | 7 * | 7 * |
| Pyridoxine (B6) (mg) | 2.91 (0.10) | 3.40 (0.60) | 0.997 | 1.7 | 2 |
| Biotin (B7) (μg) | 51.60 (2.94) | 63.86 (12.69) | 0.779 | 45 * | 35 * |
| Folate food + folic acid (B9) (μg) | 473.22 (20.87) | 668.15 (46.65) | <0.001 | 500 f | 500 g |
| Cobalamin (B12) (μg) | 6.92 (0.28) | 258.40 (53.44) | 0.096 | 5 * | 2.8 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 178.41 (8.87) | 211.86 (18.33) | 0.088 | 155 | <19y: 115 |
| ≥19y: 120 | |||||
| Vitamin A (μg) | 1430.37 (111.15) | 1357.94 (108.26) | 0.704 | 1300 h | <19y: 1200 i |
| ≥19y: 1300 i | |||||
| Vitamin D (μg) | 5.61 (0.47) | 10.78 (4.28) | 0.204 | 15 *j | 15 jk |
| Vitamin E (μg) | 17.16 (0.84) | 20.65 (1.49) | 0.029 | 11 *l | 19 |
| Iodine (μg) | 245.33 (11.76) | 259.58 (47.15) | 0.536 | 200 * | 290 |
| Calcium (mg) | 1148.32 (35.12) | 910.92 (70.48) | 0.002 | 18–24y:1000 | <19y: 1300 |
| ≥25y: 950 | ≥19y: 1000 | ||||
| Phosphorus (mg) | 1677.19 (38.38) | 1436.13 (79.71) | 0.007 | 550 * | <19y: 1250 |
| ≥19y: 700 | |||||
| Iron (mg) | 25.34 (2.17) | 31.33 (5.23) | 0.028 | 16 | <19y: 10 |
| ≥19y: 9 | |||||
| Zinc (mg) | 14.40 (0.52) | 12.07 (0.83) | 0.077 | 10.4–15.6 m | <19y: 13 |
| ≥19y: 12 | |||||
| Selenium (μg) | 118.98 (3.38) | 100.80 (6.66) | 0.010 | 85 * | 70 |
The quantitative variables are presented as means (standard error of the mean). 1 Medians and interquartile ranges for riboflavin are also shown, due to the wide dispersion of the values in the Veg group. a Recommended daily intake. Adequate intake is presented with an asterisk (*) and PRI/RDA (i.e., Population Reference Intake for the EFSA values, and Recommended Dietary Allowance for the IOM values) in ordinary type. ** Reference intake range. b Depends on age and level of physical activity. c 0.83 g/kg body weight + 19 g/day from 0–6 months postpartum or + 13 g/day if >6 months postpartum. d In addition to the combined intakes of EPA and DHA of 0.25 g/day. e As the niacin equivalents (NE) (1 mg niacin = 1 mg NE = 60 mg dietary tryptophan). f DFE: dietary folate equivalents. For the combined intakes of food folate and folic acid, DFEs can be computed as follows: μg DFE = μg food folate + (1.7 × μg folic acid). g As the dietary folate equivalents (DFE). Furthermore, 1 DFE = 1 μg of folate from food = 0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified foods or from supplements taken with food = 0.5 μg of folic acid from supplements was taken on an empty stomach. h RE: retinol equivalents, 1 μg RE equals 1 μg of retinol, 6 μg of β-carotene, and 12 μg of other provitamin A carotenoids. i As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 μg of retinol, 12 μg of β-carotene, 24 μg of α-carotene, or 24 μg of β-cryptoxanthin. j Assuming minimal cutaneous synthesis. In the presence of an endogenous cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D, the dietary vitamin D requirements are lower or even zero. Further, 1 μg of vitamin D ingested = 40 International Units (IU) and 0.025 μg of vitamin D ingested = 1 IU. k As cholecalciferol. l Such as ∝-tocopherol, which includes RRR-∝-tocopherol, the only form naturally present in foods, as well as the synthetic 2R-isomeric forms of ∝-tocopherol, which are found in certain fortified foods and supplements. m Depending on the level of a phytate intake; the higher the phytate intake, the higher the zinc requirement. Abbreviations: EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; PRI, population reference intake; AI, adequate intake; IOM, Institute of Medicine; RDA, recommended dietary allowances; Kcal, kilocalories; ALAP: as low as possible, while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; MJ: megajoule; and y, years.