Skip to main content
. 2023 May 3;25:e43873. doi: 10.2196/43873

Table 1.

Relationship between digital advertising media dose and the likelihood of vaccination, United States, December 1, 2020, to November 7, 2021a.


Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Value P value Value P value Value P value Value P value
Δ HHSb digital impressions, β (SE) 0.000014 (0.000004) .001 0.000014 (0.000004) .002 0.000013 (0.000004) .002 0.000014 (0.0000004) .002
Exogenous factors, β (SE)

Δ COVID-19 cases c –0.0006 (0.0003) .047 –0.0006 (0.0003) .04 –0.0006 (0.0003) .051

Δ COVID-19 deaths –0.0105 (0.0090) .24 –0.0069 (0.0085) .42 –0.0073 (0.0084) .38

Δ COVID-19 cable news coverage 0.1720 (0.7057) .81 0.1670 (0.7201) .81 0.1515 (0.7297) .84
Demographics, β (SE)

Income 0.169 (0.022) <.001 0.115 (0.028) <.001

Female sex –0.114 (0.051) .03 –0.010 (0.06) .88

Age 0.456 (0.04) <.001 0.378 (0.04) <.001

Education 0.219 (0.03) <.001 0.169 (0.04) <.001

Essential worker status –0.101 (0.07) .13 –0.060 (0.08) .47

Political ideology –0.448 (0.036) <.001 –0.245 (0.043) <.001

Preexisting health condition 0.191 (0.055) .001 0.099 (0.055) .08

Rurality –0.118 (0.046) .01 –0.095 (0.049) .05

Black or African American race –0.170 (0.085) .04 0.035 (0.076) .64

Hispanic/Latino ethnicity 0.154 (0.073) .04 0.177 (0.075) .02
Initial vaccine confidence, β (SE)

Wave 1 Vaccine Confidence 1.070 (0.058) <.001
Week dummy variables not reported for brevity

Constant, β (SE) –3.5199 (1.068) .001 –2.240 (4.449) .62 –2.637 (4.555) .56 –5.0876 (4.639) .27

DMAd variance, β (SE) 0.103 (0.024) 0.100 (0.024) 0.090 (0.022) 0.111 (0.029)

Observations, n 76,128 76,128 76,128 76,128

DMAs, n 204 204 204 204

aThe dependent variable is a dichotomous measure of whether a respondent received the first dose of a COVID-19 vaccine in each week.

bHHS: Department of Health and Human Services.

cNot applicable.

dDMA: designated market area.