. 2022 Jan 26;29(3):352–369. doi: 10.1177/10738584211069981

Table 1.

Studies Regarding Acute exercise.

Investigators	Participants (n)	Average Age (in Years)	Primary Exercise Stimulus	Exercise Intensity	Additional Warm-Up and Cool-Down	Control Condition	Blood Sampling	Further Detecting Methods	Time Main Effect of Postexercise Blood Levels			Further Outcomes
Investigators	Participants (n)	Average Age (in Years)	Primary Exercise Stimulus	Exercise Intensity	Additional Warm-Up and Cool-Down	Control Condition	Blood Sampling	Further Detecting Methods	AEA	2-AG	Other eCB	Further Outcomes
Antunes and others (2016)	n = 18 physically active men (aerobic exercise 5×/week) divided into a group with symptoms of sports addiction (SA, n = 8) and CON (n = 10)	SA: 32.9 ± 4.7 CON: 30.2 ± 3.1	60 minutes of running on a treadmill after 2 weeks of exercise deprivation period	Ventilatory threshold	NA	NA	At baseline, after 7 days of exercise deprivation, after 14 days of exercise deprivation, and postexercise	Q: POMS (version Brunel) at the same time-points as blood sampling. Negative Addiction Scale and Exercise Dependence Scale were questioned at the first visit	↑^* only in CON	NA	NA	AEA was decreased significantly at all time points in SA compared to CON and did not increase after the exercise. Depressive mood symptoms, fatigue, confusion, anger, and vigor loss increased in SA during withdrawal. There was a mood improvement after training in SA. No significant mood changes were detected in CON at all time points.
Marin Bosch and others (2020)	n = 15 healthy and recreational fit male participants (VO_2max above 40 mL/kg/min and below 65 mL/kg/min)	23.7 ± 4	45 minutes cycling on an ergometer (30 minutes at a moderate intensity and 15 minutes at a high intensity)	Moderate intensity: 70% AAMHR corresponding to 60% VO2_max High intensity: 80% AAMHR corresponding to 70% VO_2max	3 minutes warm-up; 3 minutes cool-down	30 minutes resting	Before and after exercise/resting	Q: STAI, questionnaires for depression, and circadian typology M: A serial reaction time task before and after the condition, and an fMRI analysis 45 minutes after the condition	↑^#	NA	NA	AEA increased significantly after moderate and high intensity in comparison with resting. High-intensity exercise increased the motor sequence memory significantly and a trend was visible for moderate-intensity exercise. The increase in motor sequence memory correlated with AEA expansion and coincided with local expansions in caudate nucleus and hippocampus activity.
Brellenthin and others (2017)	n = 36 healthy adults (18 women and 18 men) divided into three groups after their weekly physical activity (low: n = 11, moderate: n = 12, and high: n = 13)	21.1 ± 3.8	45 minutes running on a treadmill	70% to 75% VO_2max	10 minutes warm-up	45 minutes running on a treadmill at preferred intensity and time	Before and after exercise	Q: PAR at the beginning POMS, STAI, CES before and after running	↑^*	↑^#	OEA: ↑^* PEA: ↑^#	AEA and OEA increases were higher in prescribed running (P < 0.05). There were significant decreases in tension (P < 0.05), depression (P < 0.01), anger (P < 0.05), TMD (P < 0.05), and increases in vigor (P < 0.01) after both exercise conditions. The decrease in state anxiety, TMD, and confusion was greater in the preferred condition (P < 0.05).
Brellenthin and others (2019)	n = 21 participants (12 men; 9 women) with substance use disorder divided into two groups: intensive outpatient treatment (IOP; n = 10) or IOP plus aerobic exercise treatment (IOP-EX; n = 11)	IOP: 35.0 ± 7.1 IOP-EX: 35.1 ± 0.2	6 weeks IOP plus exercise (30 minutes incline walking on a treadmill 3 times a week)	Rising intensities from the first 3 weeks from 65% to 70% till the last 3 weeks at an intensity of 75% of AAMHR	5 minutes warm-up	IOP with 30 minutes sitting on a chair three times a week	Once a week before and after exercise or sitting	Q: POMS, Craving Questionnaires–Short Forms before and after treatment once a week after exercise or sitting PHQ-9, GAD-7, SCQ, and PSS asked at baseline and after 6 weeks of treatment	↑# only in IOP-EX (NR long-term effects of exercise)	↔ (NR long-term effects of exercise)	NA	Both treatments reduced perceived stress (P < 0.01), craving, tension, depression, anger, confusion, and TMD (all Ps < 0.05). The exercise group experienced acute increases in vigor.
Cedernaes and others (2016)	n = 16 healthy men with a regular sleep rhythm of 7–9 hours	22.9 ± 0.7	30 minutes ergometer cycling after three nights of sleep restriction (4.25-hour sleep opportunity)	Cycling: 75% of the VO₂ reserve capacity	5 minutes warm-up	30 minutes of ergometer cycling after three nights of normal sleep (8.5-hour sleep opportunity)	At five time points: day 3 at 7:30 p.m.; day 4 at 8:30 a.m., ∼10 a.m. (pretreatment), ∼15 minutes postexercise, and ∼4 hours postexercise	NA	↔	↑^* only after 8.5 hours sleep and only after 15 minutes postexercise	OEA: ↑# (only after 4 hours postexercise) PEA: ↔	NA
Crombie and others (2018)	n = 24 participants (6 men, 18 women) divided into PTSD (n = 12; 3 men, 9 women) and CON (n = 12; 3 men, 9 women)	25.0 ± 5.6	30 minutes running or walking on a treadmill	70% to 75% AAMHR	10 minutes warm-up	NA	Before and after exercise	Q: POMS, STAI, PANAS, MPQ-SF before and after running	↑^#	↑^*	OEA: ↑^* PEA: ↔ 2-OG: ↔	Pain decreased after running (P = 0.001). State anxiety, negative affect, tension, fatigue, confusion, and TMD were reduced (all Ps = 0.001 to 0.050). Higher reductions in negative mood states occurred after exercise in the PTSD group than in the control group.
Crombie and others (2019)	n = 20 participants (5 men, 15 women) divided into PTSD (n = 10) and CON (n = 10)	23.7 ± 7.2	30 minutes running or walking on a treadmill	70% to 75% AAMHR	5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes cool-down	The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)	Before and after exercise/TSST	Q: Before and after running/TSS, POMS, STAI, PANAS	↑^#	↑^* only in CON	OEA: ↑# PEA: ↔	Vigor (P = 0.023) and positive affect (P = 0.038) were increased after running. There were significant group × time interactions for tension (P = 0.025), depression (P = 0.040), fatigue (P = 0.005), confusion (P = 0.023), TMD (P = 0.05), state anxiety (P = 0.05), and negative affect (P = 0.05) with general reduction in the PTSD group after running. AEA increased after the TSST.
Crombie and others (2020)	n = 40 trauma-free women (n = 12), trauma-exposed women without PTSD (n = 14), and trauma-exposed women with PTSD (n = 14)	24.1 ± 6.0	30 minutes running or walking on a treadmill	70% to 75% AAMHR	5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes cool-down	40 minutes sitting	Before and after exercise/resting	Q: Before and after running/resting POMS, STAI, PANAS; RPE every 5 min during exercise; after Neutral-Predictable-Unpredictable threat task (NPU) AFRQ M: after exercise/resting NPU	↑^#	↑^#	OEA: ↑# PEA: ↑^#	Anxiety and fear ratings to NPU were significantly lower following exercise compared to resting (P < 0.05). Participants with higher increases in peripheral sampled eCBs had higher reductions in anxiety and fear ratings to NPU following exercise. There were significant reductions in fatigue, confusion, TMD, and increases in positive affect after exercise in all groups (Ps < 0.05). A significant postexercise increase in all eCBs (Ps < 0.05) was measured in comparison to sitting.
Feuerecker and others (2012)	n = 12 young healthy men	27.6; range: 24–38	Protocol A (PA): physical exercise at a lower altitude Protocol B (PB): physical exercise by an active ascent to high altitude	NR	NA	Protocol C (PC): passive ascent by a helicopter	Before the start, at the summit cottage 60 to 90 minutes upon arrival, in the morning after the overnight stay, and 60 to 90 minutes after returning to base camp the next day	NA	↑^* only in PA and PB	↔	NA	A more pronounced increase was found under high-altitude conditions in PB. PC demonstrated no significant eCB level changes.
Heyman and others (2012)	n = 11 young well-trained male cyclists	23.3 ± 5.1	60 minutes pedaling on an ergometer followed by a 30-minute intense endurance performance test (TT)	55% of W_max, and TT with a known endpoint equal to 30 minutes at 75% of W_max	NA	NA	Before exercise, after 15 minutes sitting, after 60 minutes constant pedaling, after the end of the exercise, and 15 minutes after recovery	NA	↑^* only after TT	↔	OEA: ↑# after 60 minutes ↑# after TT PEA: ↑^* after 60 minutes ↑# after TT	AEA did not increase significantly after 60 minutes pedaling at an intensity of 55% W_max. Cortisol increased at TT and recovery in comparison to baseline (Ps < 0.001). AEA correlated positively with cortisol. AEA, OEA and PEA were significantly higher after 15 minutes of recovery compared to the end of the exercise.
Meyer and others (2019)	n = 17 women with mayor depressive disorder	40.8 ± 14.8	20 minutes prescribed ergometer cycling (PRI)	Intensity of 13 rated on the RPE	5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes cool-down	20 minutes of ergometer cycling with preferred intensity (PRE)	Serum before and within 10 minutes postexercise	Q: POMS, STAI before, 10 and 30 minutes postexercise; RPE every 5 minutes during exercise	↑^* only in PRI	↔	OEA:↑^* only in PRI PEA: ↔	All subscales of the POMS (Ps < 0.05) and TMD (Ps < 0.01) were improved after exercise. STAI was just increased after PRI (P < 0.001). Significant negative correlations (Ps < 0.05) were observed 10 minutes after the PRE between AEA and depression, confusion, fatigue, TMD, and STAI. 30 minutes postexercise negative correlation between AEA and confusion, TMD, and state anxiety were detected. There were no significant associations between PRE and mood changes.
Raichlen and others (2012)	n = 10 recreationally fit humans, 8 mixed-breed dogs, and 8 ferrets	NR	30 minutes running on a treadmill	70% to 80% of AAMHR	NA	30 minutes of walking calculated by Froude number	Before and after treatment	Q: PANAS before and after treatment	↑^*	↔	NA	Pre- and postpositive affect of the PANAS was positively correlated to the increase in AEA in humans.
Raichlen and others (2013)	n = 10 healthy regular runners (6 men and 4 women)	31.9 ± 12.1	30 minutes running on a treadmill on four different days	Four different intensities: (I) HR < 50% AAMHR (II) HR ~ 70% AAMHR (III) HR ~ 80% AAMHR (IV) HR ~ 90% AAMHR	NA	Walking on a treadmill (I)	Before and after treatment	NA	↑^* only in II and III	↔	NA	NA
Siebers and others (2021)	n = 63 recreationally active participants (32 female; 31 male) divided into a placebo (n = 31) and a naltrexone group (50 mg; n = 32)	Placebo group: 26.5 ± 1.0 Naltrexone group: 28.1 ± 1.1	45 minutes running on a treadmill	Running at a moderate-intensity of 70% to 85% AAMHR	5 minutes warm-up	45 minutes of walking on a treadmill with an intensity less than 50% of AAMHR	Before and after treatment	Q: STAI, VAS, IPAQ, AQ, Anxiety VAS after Human Elevated plus-maze M: Human Elevated plus-maze	↑^#	↑^#	PEA: ↑# Arachidonic acid: ↑^#	Endorphin blockade by naltrexone did not inhibit eCB release, anxiolytic effects, or euphoria after running. Euphoria was nearly twofold higher after running but remained roughly unchanged after walking. Anxiolytic effects were observed after the run condition (P = 0.024).
Sparling and others (2003)	n = 24 male athletes divided into a group of running (R; n = 8), a group of cycling (C; n = 8), and CON (n = 8)	23.7 ± 9.4	45 minutes running or cycling	70% to 80% AAMHR	5 minutes warm-up	50 minutes of resting seated	Before and after treatment	N/A	↑# after R ↑^* after C	↔	NA	Plasma levels of 2-AG showed a similar trend during sports, but not in sedentary controls.
Stensson and Grimby-Ekman (2019)	n = 32 participants (22 women, 10 men) divided into a group with chronic neck pain (CNP; n = 21) and CON (n = 11)	CNP: 50.8 ± 12.9 CON: 37.7 ± 15.9	30 minutes dynamic arm cycling	Increasing load and a steady pace of 25 laps/min	NA	NA	Before and 60 minutes after arm cycling	M: PPT using a handheld electronic pressure algometer and rated on a numeric rating scale before, immediately after, and 60 minutes after arm cycling	↓^* only in CON ↔ only in CNP	↔	OEA: ↔ PEA: ↔	Pain intensity demonstrated no statistically significant change during the whole study.
Stone and others (2018)	n = 9 women (mean 61 years) recruited from a local choir	61; range 55–67	30 minutes cycling (n = 8) performed in a group activity	NR	NA	30 minutes of dancing, reading, singing performed in a group activity on various dates	Before and after activity	Q: PANAS before and after activity	↔	NA	OEA:↑^* PEA: ↔	AEA, OEA (Ps < 0.05), and PEA (P < 0.01) increased after singing significantly. There was a significant improvement in positive mood and emotions after singing (Ps < 0.01). All activities included, OEA was correlated with positive mood effects (P = 0.0025). Cycling had no impact on mood rating.

CON = control group; NA = not applicable; NR = not reported; Q = questionnaires; M = further measurements; AEA = anandamide; 2-AG = 2-arachidonoyl glycerol; OEA = oleoylethanolamine; PEA = palmitoylethanolamine; 2-OG = 2-oleoylglycerol; SEA = stearoylethanolamide; POMS = Profile of Mood States; AQ = Acrophobia Questionnaire; IPAQ = International Physical Activity Questionnaire; TMD = Total Mood Disturbance; PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; STAI = State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; AFRQ = Anxiety and Fear Rating Questionnaire; PAR = Physical Activity Recall; CES = Commitment to Exercise Scale; GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7; MPQ-SF = Short-form McGill Pain Questionnaire; PPT = pressure-pain threshold; VAS = visual analog scale; AAMHR = age-adjusted maximum heart rate; PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder; RPE = rate of perceived exertion.

P < 0.05, ^#P < 0.01.