7. Additional outcomes: parenting interventions.
| Outcome measure (scale) | Direction of effect | Intervention mean (SD)/events | n | Control mean (SD)/events | n | Effect estimate, 95% CI | P value | Study | Risk of bias |
| Primary outcomes | |||||||||
| Parent‐child relationship | |||||||||
| Post‐intervention | |||||||||
| Dyadic constriction (CIB) | Higher scores = worse | 2.60 (1.04) | 43 | 3.26 (1.03) | 35 | MD ‐0.66 (‐1.12 to ‐0.20) | 0.005 | Steele 2019 | High |
| 3‐month follow‐up | |||||||||
| Parent sensitivity (NCATS) | Higher scores = better | 36.17 (3.67) | 29 | 35.02 (5.03) | 41 | MD 1.15 (‐0.89 to 3.19) | 0.27 | Pasalich 2019 | Some concerns |
| 6‐month follow‐up | |||||||||
| Parent sensitivity (NCATS) | Higher scores = better | 37.14 (4.28) | 28 | 35.18 (5.96) | 38 | MD 1.96 (‐0.51 to 4.43) | 0.12 | Pasalich 2019 | Some concerns |
| Secure base behaviour (TAS‐45) | Higher scores = better | 0.16 (0.08) | 28 | 0.13 (0.08) | 38 | MD 0.03 (‐0.01 to 0.07) | 0.13 | Pasalich 2019 | Some concerns |
| Parenting skills | |||||||||
| Post‐intervention | |||||||||
| Leaving taking behaviours (direct observation) | Higher scores = better | 4.6 (1.9) | 10 | 3.3 (1.3) | 10 | MD 1.30 (‐0.13 to 2.73) | 0.07 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Generational boundary dissolution (direct observation) | Higher scores = worse | 1.9 (1.4) | 10 | 1.8 (1.3) | 10 | MD 0.10 (‐1.08 to 1.28) | 0.87 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Detachment/disengagement (direct observation) | Higher scores = worse | 1.9 (1.3) | 10 | 1.6 (1.2) | 10 | MD 0.30 (‐0.80 to 1.40) | 0.59 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Positive regard (direct observation) | Higher scores = better | 5.0 (1.7) | 10 | 5.1 (1.4) | 10 | MD ‐0.10 (‐1.46 to 1.26) | 0.89 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Intrusiveness (direct observation) | Higher scores = worse | 1.9 (1.0) | 10 | 2.2 (0.9) | 10 | MD ‐0.30 (‐1.13 to 0.53) | 0.48 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Engagement/interpersonal involvement (direct observation) | Higher scores = better | 5.6 (1.1) | 10 | 5.7 (1.0) | 10 | MD ‐0.10 (‐1.02 to 0.82) | 0.83 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Inventiveness (direct observation) | Higher scores = better | 4.3 (1.0) | 10 | 4.2 (0.7) | 10 | MD 0.10 (‐0.66 to 0.86) | 0.80 | Haight 2005 | Some concerns |
| Parental self‐efficacy in teaching (SEPTI‐TS) | Higher scores = better | 50.38 (3.07) | 15 | 43.63 (8.88) | 10 | MD 6.76 (1.04 to 12.48) | 0.02 | Liu 2021 | Some concerns |
| Parental self‐efficacy in discipline (SEPTI‐TS) | Higher scores = better | 30.69 (8.0) | 15 | 29.25 (8.84) | 10 | MD 1.44 (‐5.37 to 8.25) | 0.68 | Liu 2021 | Some concerns |
| Parental self‐efficacy in instrumental care (SEPTI‐TS) | Higher scores = better | 38.31 (5.48) | 15 | 37.88 (7.41) | 10 | MD 0.43 (‐4.94 to 5.80) | 0.88 | Liu 2021 | Some concerns |
| Parental sense of confidence (PSOC) | Higher scores = better | 41.86 (4.0) | 15 | 38.60 (5.58) | 10 | MD 3.20 (‐0.80 to 7.20) | 0.12 | Liu 2021 | Some concerns |
| Parenting Stress (PSI‐SF) | Higher scores = worse | 72.54 (22.8) | 16 | 83.01 (20.6) | 13 | MD ‐10.47 (‐26.29 to 5.35) | 0.19 | Rosenblum 2017 | Some concerns |
| Care‐giving Helplessness (CHQ) | Higher scores = worse | 11.0 (5.1) | 15 | 12.2 (5.6) | 13 | MD ‐1.16 (‐5.14 to 2.82) | 0.57 | Rosenblum 2017 | Some concerns |
CI: confidence interval; CIB: Coding Interactive Behaviour System; CHQ: Care‐giving Helplessness Questionnaire; NCATS: Nursing Child Assessment Teaching Scale; PSI‐SF: Parenting Stress Index – Short Form; PSOC: Parenting Sense of Competence Scale; SD: standard deviation; SEPTI‐TS: Self‐Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index – Toddler Scale; TAS‐45: Toddler Attachment Sort‐45.