Table 2.
Data extraction for included studies
| Author and country | Purpose of the study | Design | Population | Sample size | Prevalence | Risk factors | Intervention/ policies |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [1] Ethiopia | To assess the magnitude of lower respiratory tract infections and associated factors among under five children visiting Wolaita Sodo University Teaching and Referral Hospital | Cross-sectional survey | Mothers and care-takers (Hospitalised sample) | 414 | 40.3% | Unvaccinated children, non-exclusive breastfeeding or replacement breastfeeding, unclean fuel for cooking, absence of separate kitchen, absence of window in the kitchen room | |
| [13] Dr. Congo | To evaluate viral co-infections and risk factors for lower respiratory tract infections in children under 5 years | cross-sectional study | Children under five – years (Hospitalised sample) | 146 | 57.5% | Malnutrition, rural settings, low income and mother illiteracy were risk factors | |
| [14] Nigeria | To evaluate risk Factors for Acute Respiratory Tract Infections in Under‑five Children | cross-sectional study | Children Under – 5 Years (Hospitalised sample) | 436 | Pneumonia (31.6%), Bronchiolitis (6.9%) | Undernourished, Inadequate breast feeding, poor immunisation, attendance to day care centres, large family size, poor parental educational status, parental smoking, living in urban areas and the use of biofuels were risk factors | |
| [15] Cameroon | To determine the proportion of acute respiratory infections and the associated risk factors in children under 5 years visiting the Bamenda Regional Hospital in Cameroon | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (Hospitalised sample) | 512 | Pneumonia (22.3%) | HIV infection, poor maternal education, exposure to wood smoke, passive smoking and contact with someone who has cough | |
| [16] Ethiopia | To evaluate the prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, acute respiratory infection hospitalisation in under five years children hospitalised at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital | Cross-sectional survey | Under five children (Hospitalised sample) | 422 | 27.3% | Children < 2 years, younger maternal age, maternal age above 28 years, lack of awareness about handwashing, rural residence | |
| [17] Mozambique | To examine respiratory syncytial and influenza viruses in children under 2 years | Cross-sectional survey | Under two-years (Hospitalised sample) | 450 | 26.7 | ||
| [18] Ethiopia | To evaluate association of acute respiratory infections with indoor air pollution from biomass fuel exposure among under five children | Cross sectional study | Under – 5 years (Community sample) | 265 | Pneumonia (13.2%), Bronchiolitis (1.9%) | Large family size and living in household with no separate kitchen | |
| [19] Rwanda | To examine spatial inequalities and Socioeconomic Factors of Acute Respiratory Infections among Under five Children | Cross sectional study | Under – 5 Years (community sample) | 7,311 | 11.6% | Children with a history of diarrhoea, children > 2 years and crowded homes | |
| [20] Ethiopia | To evaluate respiratory symptoms and associated risk factors among under five children | Cross sectional survey | Under 5 Years (Community sample) | 792 | 37.5% | Uterine irritability during pregnancy, physical exercise during pregnancy, using wood and coal for heating, cockroach infestation, presence of new carpets, damp stain, opening windows during cooking, living less than 100 m heavy traffic and living less than 100 m unpaved road or street are risk factors | |
| [21] Kenya | To examine long-term PM2.5 exposure as associated with symptoms of acute respiratory infections among children under five years of age | Cross sectional survey | Children under 5 Years (community sample) | 7,036 | Exposure to high concentrations of PM2.5 is a risk factor | ||
| [22] Zambia | To examine the trends and factors associated with respiratory tract infection in children under five years | cross-sectional study | Under-5 years (Community sample) | 30,391 | 5% | Underweight children, and the use of charcoal and firewood was associated with high ALRTIs, children of mothers with no education, breastfeeding children and crowded homes were risk factors. Mothers < 20 years | |
| [23] Ghana | To examine ecological zone and symptoms of acute respiratory infection among children under five | cross-sectional study | under five – years (Community sample) | 3,393 | 22.0% | Mothers in rural areas | |
| [24] Ghana | To examine urinary pesticide residual levels and acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years of age | cross-sectional study | Mothers/ caretakers and children under five (Community sample) | 404 | 22.1% | The use of agro-chemicals is a risk factor | |
| [25] Rwanda | To assess social, economic, and environmental factors associated with acute lower respiratory infections among children under five to inform potential further improvements in the health system | Cross-sectional study | Children under five (Community sample) | 8,484 | Children < 2 years, children with severe anaemia, children living in urban area and those who did not receive vitamin A, raining season | ||
| [26] Ethiopia | To examine spatial distribution and determinants of acute respiratory infection among under five children | cross-sectional study | Children Under five- years (Community sample) | 10,006 | History of diarrhoea, children > 3 years, working mothers and stunting were risk factors | ||
| [27] Uganda | To investigate the association between wood and charcoal domestic cooking, respiratory symptoms and acute respiratory infections among children aged under 5 years | Cross-Sectional study | Pre-school children (Community sample) | 15,405 | Wood fuel use | ||
| [28] Ethiopia | To assess the prevalence and association factors of pneumonia among children under five in peri-urban area | cross-sectional study | Under five – years (Community sample) | 560 | 17.1% | Cooking in the living room, overcrowding, malnutrition and child and family history of ALRTIs | |
| [6] Sub-Saharan Africa | To examine the prevalence and determinants of ALRIs among children under five years | Cross-sectional survey | Under-5 years (Community sample) | 13,495 | 25.3% | Children aged 24–59 months and those who infected with intestinal parasite were at higher risk of ALRIs. Mothers who were employed and improved toilet facilities were protective factors | |
| [29] Ethiopia | To determine the risk factors for acute respiratory infection among children under the age of five in Ethiopia | cross-sectional survey | Children under five (Community sample) | 9,918 | 8.4% | Children with mothers with low education, not receiving vitamin A, history diarrhoea and unimproved drinking water | |
| [30] | To determine the risk factors for acute respiratory infection in children under the age of five in rural Ethiopia | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (Community sample) | 7,911 | 7.8% | Poor household, mothers no education, child has not received vitamin A, child with history diarrhoea, mothers not working, stunted and no improved water source | |
| [31] Eswatini | To investigate the individual- and community-level factors associated with child ALRIs in Eswatini | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (Community sample) | 4,265 | 11.1% | Child born to women with no formal or primary education; history of diarrhoea; children from urban areas; children in households with low proportion of electricity | |
| [32] Ethiopia | To assess the association of food cooking place with acute respiratory infections and the variability in households and surveys | Cross-sectional survey | Children under -five (Community sample) | 30,895 | 11.9% | Cooking inside the house, solid biomass fuel, breastfeeding, low parental education, mothers who do not listen or watch television and low wealth | |
| [33] Ethiopia | To investigate the spatiotemporal pattern of ALRI in Ethiopian administrative zones | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (Community sample) | 29,599 | 15% | Older children > 2, no formal parental education, children from poorer households, the use of unimproved water and toilet facilities, unclean fuel for cooking, underweight, stunted, history of diarrhoea | |
| [34] Ethiopia | To investigate the prevalence of childhood acute respiratory infection and associated factors in Northwest Ethiopia | Cross-sectional survey | Children under-four (Community sample) | 5,830 | 19.2% | Living in house with no chimney, eaves space, improved cookstove, cow dung fuel, child spending time near stove, indoor cooking events, frequent cooking of meals | |
| [35] Ethiopia | To evaluate the association of biomass fuel use with acute respiratory infection in children under five years | Cross-sectional survey | Under-5 years (Community sample) | 422 | 23.9% | Biomass, kerosine, Cigarette smoking, children who were held by their mothers while cooking, poor ventilation. Children who lived in male dominated home were less likely to be exposed to ALRTIs | |
| [36] Gambia | To examine prevalence and determinants of acute respiratory infections among children under five years | Cross-sectional survey | Rural mothers with children Under 5 Years (Community sample) | 1364 | 37.1% | Children with mothers with primary education, non-breastfed children and children whose fathers were unemployed | |
| [37] Uganda | To analyse the risk factors of ARI disease symptoms among children under the age of 5 years in Uganda | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (community sample) | 13,493 | Children < 2 years, one year child old, children whose mothers are teenagers and farm workers | ||
| [38] Nigeria | To examine whether lifestyle factors are associated with ARI risk among Nigerian children aged less than 5 years, taking individual-level and contextual-level risk factors into consideration | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (community sample) | 28,596 | In-house biomass cooking, no hand washing, orphan or vulnerable children | ||
| [39] Nigeria | To investigate the specific regional determinants of overall and wealth-related inequality in children having ARI in Nigeria over a decade | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (community sample) | No maternal education, having no vaccination card, having high birth order, short birth interval | |||
| [40] Senegal | To explore this association by using the satellite-detected tropospheric NO2 concentrations measured by Sentinel-5 Precursor and ARI symptoms in children under age five | Cross-sectional survey | Children under five (community sample) | 4,220 | High level of nitrogen dioxide | ||
| [41] Uganda | To evaluate household management of acute respiratory infections in children under five years | cross-sectional survey (Intervention study) | Mothers and caretakers of under five – years children (community sample) | 200 | Pneumonia (9%) | Appropriate use of medication is associated with decreased risk of ALRTIs, pneumonia symptoms and high level of education of caretaker | The management of ARIs among the under fives in Kampala is suboptimal with misuse of antibiotics, antimalarials, dexamethasone, herbal medicines and cough remedies common |
| [42] Uganda | To evaluate use of antibacterial in the management of symptoms of acute respiratory tract infections among children under five years | cross-sectional survey (Intervention study) | Children under five- years | 865 | 60.2% prevalence of antibiotic usage | Getting treatment from a health facility, peri-urban area and child having cough | It was found that antibacterial use is more common in children who are taken to a health facility with symptoms of ARIs. We also observed that living in less remote (peri-urban) areas was associated with high frequency of antibacterial use compared to rural areas |
| [43] Uganda | To assess the secular trend in the prevalence of ARIs as well as their treatment seeking-behaviour among Ugandan infants | Cross-sectional survey (Intervention study) | Singleton infants 0–5 (Community sample) | 26,974 | 32.7% | Children 2–5 years, high order birth, malnutrition, poor households, intendedness of the child; rural residency, | Treatment seeking behaviour has doubled since 1995 |
| [44] Dr. Congo | To evaluate decreased number of hospitalised children with severe acute lower respiratory infection after introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine | Quantitative (modelling) | children under 5 Years (Hospitalised sample) | 21,478 | 9.4% | Malnutrition | |
| [45] Benin | To examine high acute lower respiratory infection levels in children under five linked to specific weather conditions | Quantitative (modelling) | Under – 5 years | 232,214 | High relative humidity in wet season, low relative humidity and low temperature during dry season and high temperature | ||
| [46] Niger | To improve the integrated management of childhood illness through identification of etiologies of respiratory infections for an adapted treatment and testing of a new strategy for post hospitalisation health monitoring | Cohort study (Intervention study) | Children under five (Hospitalised sample) | 767 | Pneumonia (59.2%) | Failure to receive the second dose of pentavalent vaccine | Multiple home visits for post hospitalisation health monitoring did not offer better prevention of morbidity and mortality compared to a single visit |
| [47] Ethiopia | To investigate the child health effect of improved baking stove intervention compared with the continuation of the open burning traditional baking stove | R.C.T (Intervention Study) | Children under five years (Community sample) | 5,508 | 19.1% | Children > 2 years, inhouse cooking, frequency of cooking | Improved baking stove intervention did not have significant effect on ALRTI |
| [48] Ethiopia | To evaluate determinant factors for ARI | Case control | Under-5 years (hospitalised sample) | 417 | Age of the mother/ caregiver > 35 years, housewife, unclean stove, carrying the child while preparing food, absence of windows in the house, and nutritional status of the child | ||
| [49] Nigeria | To examine the pattern of acute respiratory infections in hospitalised children under five | Case control study | Children Under – 5 years (Hospitalised sample) | 113 | Total prevalence of 39% | ||
| [50] Ethiopia | To assess risk factors of acute respiratory infection among under five children attending public hospitals in Southern Tigray, Ethiopia | Case control study | Under five children (hospitalised sample) | 288 | Malnutrition, cow dung fuel use, presence of smoker in the family, low maternal literacy | ||
| [51] Nigeria | To examine Indoor airborne microbial burden and risk of acute respiratory infections among children under five years | Case control study | Under-5 years (hospitalised sample) | 132 | Higher indoor bacterial counts | ||
| [52] Nigeria | To evaluate housing quality and risk of acute respiratory infections among hospitalised children under five | Case control study | Hospitalised Under – 5 years (Hospitalised sample) | 132 | Damp roof, mould growths on walls and high indoor air relative humidity were risk factors | ||
| [53] Ethiopia | To examine children under five from houses of unclean fuel sources and poorly ventilated houses have higher odds of suffering from acute respiratory infection | Case- control study | Children under – 5 years (hospitalised sample) | 1144 | Solid fuel for cooking, poor ventilated houses, large family size and carrying children whiles cooking |