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. 2023 May 9;13:7473. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-34025-x

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Radish seedling rooting behaviors are variable. (a–c) The penetration of radish roots into the soil is affected by the soil properties and seedling growth stage. (a) Representative images of 7-days after hydration (DAH) seedlings transferred to vermiculite (left) or silica sand (right) at 1-DAH. (b) Representative images of 7-DAH seedlings transferred to silica sand at 1-DAH (left) or 2-DAH (right). (c) A typical 4-DAH seedling grown on the surface of a vertically oriented agar plate. Co: cotyledons; Hy: hypocotyl; Sc: seed coat. Cell division is limited to the region near the root cap. (d) Rate of successful root penetration for two European and two Asian radish cultivars transferred to either vermiculite or silica sand at 1-DAH. Each data point is an average of four independent pots (n = 3–5 seedlings each). Error bars indicate standard deviation (SD). (e) Rate of successful root penetration in three European radish cultivars transferred to silica sand either at 1- or 2-DAH. Data show averages of four pots (n = 3–5 each) ± SD.