Table 3.
Noncarcinogenic Danger-Associated Molecular Patterns from Cigarette Smoke Activate Both Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells
| Cell type | Effects | PMID |
|---|---|---|
| Macrophages | Increased cell activation Increased expression of TLR4 Increased secretion of proinflammatory mediators (TNF-α) Increased ROS production Impaired bactericidal and phagocytotic processes Activation of IL-1R-associated kinase, p38, and NF-κB |
12033743 17630319 16004610 16620395 19409098 17947684 |
| Neutrophils | Increased cell number Increased IL-8 production Increased ROS production Enhanced degradation of IκB-α/β proteins and activity of p65 and p50 |
6556892 12960242 |
| DCs | Increased number of immature DCs and decreased number of mature DCs Decreased T cell stimulatory capacity and Th1-cell polarization Increased expression of MHC-II molecules and costimulatory molecules CD40 and CD86 Increased CD4+ cells rather than CD8+ cells |
18337593 25338516 16055867 |
| NK cells | Decreased NK cell numbers and activity Decreased cytotoxic activity and cytokine production Decreased IFN-γ, TNF-α secretions, and perforin expression |
26201093 18055568 |
| B lymphocytes | Increased levels of memory B cells and memory IgG+ B cells Increased levels of circulating IgE Decreased IgG, IgM, and IgA Increased expression of nicotinic receptors |
19909533 24502245 14500745 25011477 |
| T cells | Increased lung CD3+, CD8+, and CD4+ T cells Increased the percentage of CD8+ NKG2D+ cells Enhanced percentage of CD8+ CD69+ cells and cell surface expression of CD69 Increased IFN-γ and CCR6 expression Increased Th17 cells and Th17-related cytokines (IL-17A, IL-6, and IL-23) Increased percentages of Treg cells Increased activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells Increased production of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, TNF-α, and IFN-γ Decreased CD4+ CD25+ Treg cells, Foxp3, TGF-β, and IL-10 |
18706444 21763119 20863413 20646637 23044435 23319833 28745532 22070100 |
CS affects both innate and adaptive immunity and plays dual functions in regulating immunity by promoting pathogenic immune responses or suppressing defensive immunity. Innate immune cells affected by CS include macrophages, neutrophils, DCs, and NK cells, while adaptive immune cells affected by CS mainly include T helper cells (Th1/Th2/Th17), CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, CD8+ T cells, B cells, and memory T/B lymphocytes.
Foxp3, forkhead box P3; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β.