Table 8.

Cigarette Smoke Induces Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress, Which Promote Inflammation, Inflammatory Cell Death (Pyroptosis), Oxidative DNA Damage, and Cancers

	Cell type/tissue/species	Effect	PMID
CS-exposed humans, mice, and pig	Skeletal muscles Diaphragm	Induced oxidative stress and inflammation leading to muscle dysfunction	20413628 22349133
CS-exposed rat	Serum/brain	Increased expression of pro-oxidant genes (iNOS, NOX4, dual oxidase 1, and p22[phox]) leading to oxidative stress Increased expression of proinflammatory markers (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, IL-23, IL-17, IL-10, TGF-β, T-bet, and FoxP3) and increased inflammation	23031832
CSE	Type II alveolar epithelial cells	Decreased cell viability Decreased expression of VEGF Increased ROS production and oxidative stress	25607112
CSE	Mouse β cells	Increased β cell endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stress Reduced insulin secretion Impaired β cell survival	32283079
CS	Mouse lung	Increased MDA and MPO activities Decreased SOD activity Induced oxidative stress Reduced the expression of the mitochondrial fusion protein OPA1 and fission protein MFF Induced mitochondrial dysfunction	34221235
Acute CS exposure	Human alveolar epithelial cell	Increased cellular oxidative stress and autophagy	31016633
Electronic cigarette	Rats	Induced oxidative stress	34515107
CS exposure	Alveolar macrophages	Increased intracellular ROS Increased IL-8 cytokine production Increased basal mitochondrial ROS Increased oxidative stress	33986144
Nicotine	Mouse VSMCs/Apoe−/− mice	Induced autophagy and VSMC phenotype switching Increased ROS production and NF-κB signaling pathway Increased aortic atherosclerotic plaque	30856513

iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; MDA, malondialdehyde; MFF, mitochondrial fission factor; MPO, myeloperoxidase; OPA1, optic atrophy protein 1; SOD, superoxide dismutase; VSMCs, vascular smooth muscle cells.