Fig. 1.

Massive production and use of face masks have resulted in different pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. Yellow arrow: face mask production and distribution require petroleum-based raw materials, petrol, workforce, and electricity, which consume energy and release CO₂. Black arrows: face masks discarded in waste containers are incinerated or landfilled with other plastic wastes, which generate harmful gases, toxic compounds, and microplastics (MPs), which can move through the soil and underground water environments. Red arrows: masks discarded in outdoor environments can generate small debris and MPs, which can move through terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric ecosystems, thus, threatening wildlife through entanglement and ingestion, causing injury or ecotoxicological effects. These pollutants can accumulate along food chains, thereby resulting in MP pollution in human food resources. Moreover, atmospheric MPs and other toxic gases can be inhaled by terrestrial animals, including humans.