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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Schematic illustration of NAD and NADH molecules and their charges. Although the abbreviation for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is written with a plus sign (NAD+), its net charge is negative due to the presence of two phosphate groups. Similarly, NADH has a net charge of negative two.