Table 1.

Possible actions to improve sand quality.

When the sand quality is documented as poor and action needs to be taken, chlorination is the most used approach. Biocides, if needed, do not go beyond the superficial sand layers, unless a dispersing agent is added [22]. If too polluted, sand may be replaced as a remediation approach [29].

Implementation of covered garbage receptacles that are animal-proof and protected from precipitation, in designated areas.

Proper solid waste management to prevent non-native bird usage at the beach.

Toilet facilities that can minimise contamination impacts from human faecal matter and encourage proper personal hygiene at the beach.

Appropriate design and implementation of drainage systems for beach areas so that drainage from parking lots and backshore areas cannot flow into the nearshore beach zone [30].

Re-direction of stormwater drainage from nearby communities away from the beach, combined with limited recreational access to downstream areas if stormwater does reach the beach area, to minimise exposure to beachgoers.