Table 3.

Liposomal nuclear imaging probes, their isotopes, applications, and research outcomes.

Liposomal Probe Name	Isotope	Application and Research Outcomes	Ref.
99mTc-labeled liposome	99mTc	In vivo biodistribution study, similar biodistribution in normal tissues of humans and rats	[76]
99mTc-labeled liposome	99mTc	Diagnostic imaging for deep-seated infection	[77]
99mTc-liposomes	99mTc	Diagnostic imaging for focal infection	[78]
99mTc-labeled L1	99mTc	Drug delivery evaluation, potential SPECT imaging probe for arthritis	[79]
111In- hosphatidylserine100 (PS100); 111In-PS200; 111In-labeled phosphatidyl-d-serine100 (DPS100); 111In-labeled DPS200; 111In- Phosphatidylcholine100 (PC100); 111In-PC200	111In	Diagnostic imaging for atherosclerotic plaque, high uptake of PS liposomes due to recognition by macrophages	[80]
[111In]1% Polyethylene glycols (PEG)2000PS100; [111In]5%PEg2000PS100; [111In]1%PEG5000PS100; [111In]5%PEG5000PS100; [111In]PS100; [111In]PS200	111In	Diagnostic imaging for atherosclerotic plaques, in vivo biodistribution study, slow blood clearance due to PEG modification on the surface of liposomes	[81]
99mTc-labeled liposome	99mTc	Blood pool imaging probe with high in vivo stability	[82]
99mTc-labeled liposomes	99mTc	Diagnostic imaging for staphylococcal abscesses, negatively charged 99mTc-labeled liposomes may be specific for naturally occurring abscesses	[83]
111In-labeled liposomes	111In	Diagnostic imaging for suspected and unsuspected tumors, in vivo biodistribution study	[84]
111In-labeled liposomes (VesCan®)	111In	Diagnostic imaging for primary tumors or metastases with 70–80% overall sensitivity, in vivo biodistribution study	[100]
111In-labeled liposomes	111In	Diagnostic imaging for Kaposi sarcoma and lymphoma in AIDS, liposomal encapsulation reduced the toxicity of chemotherapeutics toward healthy tissues	[101]
111In-labeled liposomes	111In	Diagnostic imaging for malignant glioma, distinct tumor image with no toxicity, low overall brain uptake	[102]
111In-labeled VS102 liposomes (VesCan®)	111In	Diagnostic imaging for carcinomas and in vivo biodistribution	[103]
99mTc- Glutathione (GSH)-liposomes; 99mTc-ammonium sulfate-liposomes; 186/188Re-GSH-liposomes; 186/188Re-ammonium sulfate-liposomes	99mTc and 186/188Re	Diagnostic imaging, radiolabeling technique of preformed liposomes with 99mTc or 186/188Re	[104]
99mTc-BMEDA labeled GSH; 99mTc-BMEDA+BT-labeled GSH; 99mTc-BMBuA-labeled GSH; 99mTc-BMBuA+BT-labeled GSH liposomes	99mTc	Radiolabeling method optimization using BMEDA	[105]
99mTc-PEG-HYNIC liposomes	99mTc	SPECT imaging for inflammation, limited to distinguishing between vascularized early adhesions and early abscesses	[106]
111In-encapsulated liposomes	111In	SPECT imaging probe for the therapeutic efficacy of liposomal anticancer agents	[107]
67Cu-small unilamellar vesicles (SUV); 188Re-SUV; 90Y-SUV; 131I-SUV; 67Cu- multilamellar vesicles (MLV); 188Re-MLV; 188Re-MLV; 67Cu-GM1; 188Re-GM1; 90Y-GM1; 131I-GM1	67Cu, 90Y, 188Re, 131I	Liposomal radiopharmaceutical efficacy evaluation	[108]
188Re-BMEDA-labeled pegylated liposomes	188Re	In vivo biodistribution study, radiolabeling method of liposomes with 188Re, theranostic benefit	[109]
186Re-(NH4)2SO4 liposomes; 186Re-cysteine liposomes	186Re	Radiolabeling method for the optimization of 186Re, theranostic benefit	[60]
99mTc-BMEDA labeled liposomes with ammonium sulfate, citrate, or GSH	99mTc	Novel radiolabeling method using 99mTc-BMEDA for the labeling of pH/GSH gradient liposomes	[61]
188Re-BMEDA-labeled pegylated liposomes	188Re	In vivo biodistribution, theranostic vehicle with prolonged half-life due to the novel radiolabeling method using BMEDA for 188Re	[110]
188Re-BMEDA and 188Re-liposome	188Re	In vivo biodistribution, theranostic vehicle for lung cancer	[111]
188Re-BMEDA-labeled liposome	188Re	In vivo biodistribution study, theranostic benefit	[112]
188Re-BMEDA-labeled liposome	188Re	In vivo biodistribution study, theranostic benefit with long circulation period due to PEG modification	[113]
188Re-BMEDA-labeled pegylated liposomal doxorubicin; 188Re-liposomes	188Re	Therapeutic efficacy study, scintigraphic imaging, in vivo biodistribution, theranostic vehicle	[114]
188Re- doxorubicin (DXR)-liposome-BBN; 188Re-liposome-BBN	188Re	Therapeutic efficacy, scintigraphic imaging, theranostic vehicle	[115]
188Re-liposome	188Re	Therapeutic efficacy, scintigraphic imaging, theranostic benefit	[116]
Liposomal 18[F]-fluorodipalmitin (FDP)	18F	Radiolabeling method for the optimization of liposomes, PET imaging probe	[50]
Liposomes modified with 18[F]-radiolabeled amphiphilic compounds	18F	Radiolabeling method for the optimization of liposomes with 18[F]-labeled amphiphilic compounds, PET imaging probe	[117]
68Ga-DTPA-PEGylated -liposomes (PLP)	68Ga	In vivo biodistribution of radiolabeled liposomes, PET imaging probe	[118]
[18F]-fluorinated carboplatin (FCP) encapsulation in [111In]-liposomes	18F, 111In	Dual-tracer PET and SPECT imaging	[119]
18F-(E)-cyclooct-4-enyl2,5-dioxo1-pyrrolidinylcarbonate(TCO)-liposomes	18F	Radiolabeling of liposomes with 18F, theranostic vehicle	[120]
64Cu-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-1,4,8,11-tetraacetic acid (TETA) liposomes; 64Cu-TETA-PEG2k liposomes; 64Cu-CB-1,4,8,11-tetraazabicyclo(6.6.2)hexadecane (TE2A)-PEG2k liposomes	64Cu	Radiolabeling method optimization using a maleimide lipid and bifunctional chelator, high stability in vitro and in vivo	[121]
64Cu-DPPE-labeled liposomes; 64Cu-DSPE-labeled liposomes	64Cu	Radiolabeling method and optimization of 64Cu for liposomes	[122]
64Cu-TATE-liposomes	64Cu	Radiolabeling method optimization, in vivo biodistribution study of radiolabeled liposomes, diagnostic imaging for tumors	[123]
64Cu-liposomes	64Cu	Diagnostic imaging, comparison between 64Cu-liposomes and 18F-FDG	[124]
64Cu-MM-302	64Cu	Diagnostic imaging, in vivo biodistribution study of radiolabeled liposomes, theranostic vehicle	[125]
64Cu-liposome	64Cu	PET imaging probe targeting bone marrow	[126]
64Cu-liposome	64Cu	Theranostic benefit with improved therapeutic interventions for inflammatory and infectious disease	[127]
89Zr-labeled liposomes	89Zr	Radiolabeling method optimization of 89Zr, in vivo biodistribution study of 89Zr-labeled liposomes, visualization of macrophage biology in vivo; the labeling site and the linkers did not alter labeling stability but did alter blood retention time	[128]
[89Zr]Zr(oxinate)4-liposome complex	89Zr	Radiolabeling method optimization of 89Zr, PET imaging probe	[129]