Table 4.
Maternal nutritional outcomes by the frequency of bean consumption during pregnancy.
| Frequency of Dried Beans Consumption | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Never (a) | 1 Time a Month (b) | 2–3 Times a Month (c) | 1 or More Times a Week (d) | Overall p-Value | Significant Pairwise Comparisons (LSD) | |
| Nutritional Outcomes | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | ||
| Total food energy, kcal/day | 2125.7 ± 934.1 | 2053.3 ± 829.1 | 2136.7 ± 939.3 | 2384.8 ± 945.4 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Total carbohydrate, g/day | 290.0 ± 145.5 | 278.1 ± 124.2 | 283.2 ± 136.1 | 316.3 ± 140.0 | 0.013 | a vs. b |
| Energy from carbohydrate, % | 54.2 ± 8.6 | 54.2 ± 8.4 | 52.9 ± 7.4 | 52.8 ± 6.9 | 0.028 | a vs. c, a vs. d |
| Added sugar, tsp/day | 21.0 ± 18.2 | 19.6 ± 17.5 | 19.6 ± 15.6 | 19.5 ± 16.2 | 0.495 | |
| Added sugar, g/day | 83.9 ± 72.9 | 78.2 ± 70.0 | 78.4 ± 62.3 | 78.1 ± 64.7 | 0.495 | |
| Energy from added sugar, % | 15.2 ± 8.7 | 14.9 ± 8.8 | 14.2 ± 7.2 | 12.6 ± 6.3 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Total fiber, g/day | 17.4 ± 8.6 | 18.1 ± 8.8 | 18.9 ± 9.0 | 24.4 ± 10.3 | <0.001 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Total fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 8.4 ± 2.6 | 9.0 ± 3.1 | 9.1 ± 2.6 | 10.5 ± 2.8 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Insoluble fiber, g/day | 11.4 ± 5.9 | 11.9 ± 6.0 | 12.4 ± 6.2 | 16.1 ± 6.8 | <0.001 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Insoluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 5.5 ± 1.9 | 5.9 ± 2.2 | 6.0 ± 1.9 | 7.0 ± 1.9 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Soluble fiber, g/day | 5.8 ± 2.8 | 6.1 ± 2.9 | 6.3 ± 3.0 | 8.1 ± 3.5 | <0.001 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Soluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Protein, g/day | 79.9 ± 35.0 | 79.1 ± 34.8 | 83.3 ± 37.1 | 93.4 ± 36.7 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from protein, % | 15.4 ± 3.2 | 15.5 ± 3.3 | 15.8 ± 3.1 | 15.9 ± 2.6 | 0.047 | a vs. c, a vs. d |
| Total fat, g/day | 76.9 ± 37.7 | 74.4 ± 34.2 | 79.8 ± 38.4 | 89.3 ± 37.8 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from total fat, % | 32.6 ± 6.8 | 32.5 ± 6.6 | 33.5 ± 6.1 | 33.7 ± 5.5 | 0.036 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d |
| Monounsaturated fat, g/day | 27.9 ± 13.6 | 27.0 ± 12.4 | 29.2 ± 14.0 | 32.9 ± 13.9 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from monounsaturated fat, % | 11.9 ± 2.7 | 11.9 ± 2.7 | 12.3 ± 2.4 | 12.5 ± 2.3 | 0.002 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. c, b vs. d |
| Polyunsaturated fat, g/day | 14.9 ± 7.9 | 14.5 ± 7.6 | 15.7 ± 8.3 | 18.5 ± 7.9 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from polyunsaturated Fat, % | 6.4 ± 2.0 | 6.4 ± 1.9 | 6.7 ± 1.8 | 7.1 ± 1.7 | <0.001 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Saturated fat, g | 28.4 ± 15.2 | 27.3 ± 13.3 | 28.9 ± 15.0 | 31.2 ± 15.1 | 0.029 | a vs. d, b vs. d |
| Energy from saturated fat, % | 12.0 ± 3.0 | 11.9 ± 2.8 | 12.0 ± 2.7 | 11.6 ± 2.5 | 0.418 | |
| Iron, mg/day | 16.6 ± 7.6 | 16.4 ± 7.0 | 16.7 ± 7.2 | 19.6 ± 7.8 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Iron adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 8.0 ± 2.3 | 8.2 ± 2.3 | 8.0 ± 1.9 | 8.4 ± 2.0 | 0.109 | a vs. d, c vs. d |
| Potassium, mg/day | 3402.6 ± 1719.2 | 3331.3 ± 1565.9 | 3410.6 ± 1565.1 | 3976.4 ± 1663.7 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Potassium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 1610.6 ± 380.1 | 1623.8 ± 393.1 | 1617.6 ± 340.3 | 1680.3 ± 310.7 | 0.084 | a vs. d, c vs. d |
| Folate, mcg/day | 249.9 ± 141.6 | 253.4 ± 133.6 | 266.6 ± 128.5 | 352.1 ± 166.3 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Folate adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 118.4 ± 39.0 | 124.0 ± 41.3 | 127.1 ± 34.1 | 149.7 ± 44.6 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Vitamin D, mcg/day | 7.9 ± 6.6 | 7.5 ± 5.4 | 7.4 ± 5.2 | 7.6 ± 5.3 | 0.471 | |
| Vitamin D adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 3.6 ± 2.1 | 3.6 ± 1.8 | 3.4 ± 1.6 | 3.1 ± 1.5 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d |
| Magnesium, mg/day | 331.4 ± 161.5 | 325.4 ± 145.5 | 336.5 ± 149.5 | 398.6 ± 161.5 | <0.001 | a vs. d, a vs. c, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Magnesium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 157.4 ± 34.1 | 159.4 ± 37.5 | 160.1 ± 31.6 | 169.3 ± 31.6 | <0.001 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| HEI-2005 total core | 63.6 ± 9.1 | 64.8 ± 9.5 | 65.4 ± 8.9 | 67.5 ± 7.8 | <0.001 | a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Frequency of chili consumption | ||||||
| Never (a) | 1 time a month (b) | 2–3 times a month (c) | 1 or more times a week (d) | Overall p-value | Significant pairwise comparisons (LSD) | |
| Nutritional outcomes | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | ||
| Total food energy, kcal/day | 2071.3 ± 874.9 | 2264.1 ± 987.7 | 2341.5 ± 905.7 | 2899.5 ± 1322.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Total carbohydrate, g/day | 279.3 ± 132.6 | 307.9 ± 149.6 | 310.1 ± 134.9 | 381.3 ± 204.2 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from carbohydrate, % | 53.8 ± 8.3 | 54.1 ± 7.7 | 52.8 ± 7.0 | 52.1 ± 8.5 | 0.284 | |
| Added sugar, tsp/day | 19.7 ± 16.9 | 21.6 ± 18.6 | 19.9 ± 15.8 | 24.2 ± 19.1 | 0.211 | |
| Added sugar, g/day | 78.8 ± 67.5 | 86.4 ± 74.5 | 79.6 ± 63.4 | 96.7 ± 76.3 | 0.211 | |
| Energy from added sugar, % | 14.8 ± 8.4 | 14.7 ± 8.0 | 13.3 ± 6.6 | 12.6 ± 6.5 | 0.115 | a vs. c |
| Total fiber, g/day | 18.1 ± 8.8 | 19.8 ± 9.9 | 21.1 ± 8.8 | 28.2 ± 13.4 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Total fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 8.9 ± 2.8 | 8.9 ± 2.9 | 9.2 ± 2.7 | 10.1 ± 2.8 | 0.072 | a vs. d, b vs. d |
| Insoluble fiber, g/day | 11.9 ± 6.1 | 13.0 ± 6.7 | 13.8 ± 5.8 | 18.1 ± 8.9 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Insoluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 5.9 ± 2.0 | 5.9 ± 2.0 | 6.1 ± 2.0 | 6.5 ± 1.9 | 0.293 | |
| Soluble fiber, g/day | 6.0 ± 2.9 | 6.6 ± 3.2 | 7.1 ± 3.0 | 9.8 ± 4.6 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Soluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 0.002 | a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Protein, g/day | 79.3 ± 33.9 | 85.5 ± 37.9 | 92.0 ± 35.6 | 114.2 ± 56.6 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from protein, % | 15.6 ± 3.2 | 15.4 ± 3.1 | 15.8 ± 2.4 | 15.8 ± 3.4 | 0.581 | |
| Total fat, g/day | 75.9 ± 36.0 | 82.2 ± 40.4 | 87.2 ± 35.4 | 108.6 ± 48.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from total fat, % | 32.9 ± 6.7 | 32.7 ± 6.1 | 33.6 ± 5.8 | 34.2 ± 6.2 | 0.339 | |
| Monounsaturated fat, g/day | 27.7 ± 13.0 | 29.9 ± 14.7 | 32.0 ± 13.0 | 40.1 ± 18.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from monounsaturated fat, % | 12.0 ± 2.7 | 11.9 ± 2.4 | 12.4 ± 2.4 | 12.6 ± 2.6 | 0.205 | |
| Polyunsaturated fat, g/day | 15.0 ± 7.8 | 16.2 ± 8.6 | 17.3 ± 7.7 | 20.7 ± 8.8 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from polyunsaturated Fat, % | 6.5 ± 1.9 | 6.5 ± 1.9 | 6.7 ± 1.9 | 6.8 ± 2.0 | 0.505 | |
| Saturated fat, g | 27.6 ± 14.3 | 30.0 ± 16.0 | 31.4 ± 14.1 | 39.5 ± 19.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Energy from saturated fat, % | 11.9 ± 2.9 | 11.8 ± 2.7 | 12.0 ± 2.5 | 12.2 ± 2.5 | 0.868 | |
| Iron, mg/day | 16.4 ± 7.2 | 17.6 ± 7.4 | 19.1 ± 8.0 | 23.4 ± 11.5 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. c, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Iron adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 8.1 ± 2.1 | 8.0 ± 2.0 | 8.4 ± 2.4 | 8.3 ± 2.4 | 0.300 | |
| Potassium, mg/day | 3318.9 ± 1546.9 | 3678.4 ± 1816.7 | 3845.0 ± 1688.8 | 4931.1 ± 2206.2 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Potassium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 1616.9 ± 369.1 | 1635.5 ± 359.7 | 1639.8 ± 358.6 | 1726.8 ± 199.7 | 0.342 | |
| Folate, mcg/day | 254.9 ± 135.9 | 292.0 ± 164.9 | 302.0 ± 139.5 | 391.8 ± 180.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Folate adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 124.1 ± 39.1 | 130.2 ± 46.8 | 129.4 ± 36.2 | 141.0 ± 38.2 | 0.015 | a vs. b, a vs. d |
| Vitamin D, mcg/day | 7.2 ± 5.2 | 8.4 ± 7.5 | 8.5 ± 6.1 | 9.8 ± 6.1 | 0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d |
| Vitamin D adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 3.4 ± 1.8 | 3.6 ± 2.0 | 3.6 ± 1.7 | 3.3 ± 1.6 | 0.703 | |
| Magnesium, mg/day | 328.4 ± 147.6 | 357.2 ± 178.1 | 374.5 ± 150.4 | 472.6 ± 200.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, a vs. d, b vs. d, c vs. d |
| Magnesium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 160.3 ± 34.8 | 159.0 ± 33.2 | 161.3 ± 31.3 | 167.4 ± 27.4 | 0.583 | |
| HEI-2005 total core | 64.7 ± 9.2 | 64.8 ± 8.9 | 65.5 ± 8.2 | 65.2 ± 9.0 | 0.813 | |
| Frequency of bean soup consumption | ||||||
| Never (a) | 1 time a month (b) | 2 or more times a month (c) | Overall p-value | Significant pairwise comparisons (LSD) | ||
| Nutritional outcomes | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |||
| Total food energy, kcal/day | 2123.3 ± 910.2 | 2294.3 ± 975.6 | 2508.3 ± 1020.7 | 0.002 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Total carbohydrate, g/day | 286.3 ± 139.8 | 307.3 ± 138.5 | 338.0 ± 134.9 | 0.010 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Energy from carbohydrate, % | 53.7 ± 8.2 | 53.6 ± 7.5 | 54.4 ± 6.6 | 0.826 | ||
| Added sugar, tsp/day | 20.5 ± 18.0 | 19.4 ± 13.2 | 16.8 ± 8.8 | 0.280 | ||
| Added sugar, g/day | 82.0 ± 72.2 | 77.6 ± 52.8 | 67.1 ± 35.2 | 0.280 | ||
| Energy from added sugar, % | 14.9 ± 8.4 | 13.2 ± 6.4 | 10.8 ± 4.1 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Total fiber, g/day | 18.1 ± 9.0 | 22.2 ± 9.6 | 27.5 ± 10.1 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Total fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 8.7 ± 2.7 | 10.0 ± 2.8 | 11.5 ± 3.3 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Insoluble fiber, g/day | 11.9 ± 6.1 | 14.8 ± 6.5 | 18.1 ± 6.5 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Insoluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 5.7 ± 1.9 | 6.6 ± 2.0 | 7.6 ± 2.3 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Soluble fiber, g/day | 6.1 ± 3.0 | 7.3 ± 3.2 | 9.2 ± 3.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Soluble fiber adjusted for energy, g/1000 kcal | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.8 ± 1.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Protein, g/day | 80.8 ± 34.8 | 90.4 ± 39.6 | 100.9 ± 42.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Energy from protein, % | 15.5 ± 3.1 | 15.9 ± 2.9 | 16.1 ± 2.5 | 0.054 | a vs. b | |
| Total fat, g/day | 78.0 ± 36.8 | 84.0 ± 40.1 | 90.7 ± 44.2 | 0.013 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Energy from total fat, % | 33.1 ± 6.5 | 32.8 ± 6.2 | 32.1 ± 5.5 | 0.563 | ||
| Monounsaturated fat, g/day | 28.4 ± 13.4 | 30.7 ± 14.4 | 33.2 ± 16.6 | 0.009 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Energy from monounsaturated fat, % | 12.1 ± 2.6 | 12.0 ± 2.5 | 11.8 ± 2.3 | 0.725 | ||
| Polyunsaturated fat, g/day | 15.2 ± 7.8 | 17.0 ± 8.6 | 19.4 ± 9.8 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Energy from polyunsaturated Fat, % | 6.5 ± 1.9 | 6.7 ± 1.8 | 7.0 ± 1.8 | 0.134 | ||
| Saturated fat, g | 28.5 ± 14.7 | 30.0 ± 15.6 | 31.1 ± 15.8 | 0.259 | ||
| Energy from saturated fat, % | 12.0 ± 2.9 | 11.6 ± 2.5 | 10.9 ± 2.3 | 0.006 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Iron, mg/day | 16.5 ± 7.2 | 19.4 ± 8.6 | 21.7 ± 7.1 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Iron adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 8.0 ± 2.1 | 8.7 ± 2.3 | 9.0 ± 1.9 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Potassium, mg/day | 3382.6 ± 1605.0 | 3869.1 ± 1803.0 | 4495.9 ± 1987.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Potassium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 1607.4 ± 366.4 | 1691.5 ± 345.0 | 1794.7 ± 287.0 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| Folate, mcg/day | 260.2 ± 144.5 | 306.5 ± 136.8 | 385.0 ± 172.7 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Folate adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 123.4 ± 40.2 | 136.2 ± 37.3 | 157.3 ± 51.9 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Vitamin D, mcg/day | 7.5 ± 5.7 | 8.3 ± 6.9 | 8.6 ± 7.7 | 0.164 | ||
| Vitamin D adjusted for energy, mcg/1000 kcal | 3.5 ± 1.9 | 3.5 ± 1.9 | 3.1 ± 1.8 | 0.412 | ||
| Magnesium, mg/day | 331.0 ± 150.8 | 387.5 ± 179.0 | 442.2 ± 177.1 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
| Magnesium adjusted for energy, mg/1000 kcal | 157.7 ± 33.6 | 170.4 ± 33.0 | 179.7 ± 33.4 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c | |
| HEI-2005 total core | 64.1 ± 9.0 | 67.2 ± 8.2 | 70.6 ± 8.6 | <0.001 | a vs. b, a vs. c, b vs. c | |
SD: standard deviation; LSD: Fisher’s least significant difference test method. Group labels: group a—never consume dried beans; group b—consume dried beans 1 time a month; group c—consume dried beans 2–3 times a month; group d—consume dried beans 1 or more times a week. SD: standard deviation; LSD: Fisher’s least significant difference test method. Group labels: group a—never consume chili; group b—consume chili 1 time a month; group c—consume chili 2–3 times a month; group d—consume chili 1 or more times a week. SD: standard deviation; LSD: Fisher’s least significant difference test method. Group labels: group a—never consume bean soup; group b—consume bean soup 1 time a month; group c—consume bean soup 2 or more times a month.