Enzymatic antibiotic inactivation and modification |
β-Lactamase is an important resistance mechanism, which is divided into ESBLs, AmpC, and carbapenemases |
[13,18] |
Antibiotic targets alteration |
K. pneumoniae causes drug resistance by mutating the target gene or methylating some bases |
[19,20,21] |
Porin loss and mutation |
K. pneumoniae develops resistance by reducing the entry of antimicrobial agents into the bacteria by reducing the outer membrane pore protein |
[25,26] |
Increased efflux pump expression of the antibiotic |
Efflux pumps reduce intracellular drug concentrations by releasing antimicrobial cells outside the cell, thereby reducing susceptibility to multiple antibiotics |
[29] |
Biofilm formation |
Biofilms have osmotic barrier properties and are resistant to antimicrobial agents |
[31,32,33] |