. 2023 May 15;5(2):e00021. doi: 10.1097/IN9.0000000000000021

Table 1.

The impact of PA on innate immune inflammatory responses and memory.

Conditions	Responses	Biological effects	Models used	References
Simultaneous	Priming	Enhanced ceramide	Primary and immortalized mouse macrophages	^[14,15,36]
PA + LPS (in vitro)		Enhanced TNF/IL-6 secretion
PA + LPS (in vitro)		JNK dependent
PA pre-treatment + LPS (in vitro)	Trained immunity	Enhanced TNF/IL-6/IL-1β secretion, all ceramide dependent	Primary mouse macrophages; immortalized human and mouse macrophages	^{[12,17,35,37]}
PA pre-treatment + LPS (in vitro)	Trained immunity	Role of mitochondria and MAPK signaling		^{[12,17,35,37]}
PA pre-treatment + LPS (in vivo)	Trained immunity	Enhanced circulating inflammation; decreased survival	Wild-type female BALB/c mice	^[12]
PA pre-treatment + infection (in vivo)	Trained immunity	Enhanced microbial clearance	Rag^−/− mice + Candida albicans infection; wild-type female BALB/c mice + Brucella abortus infection	^[12,13]

IL-6, interleukin 6; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; PA, palmitic acid; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.