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. 2023 Jan 17;19(4):827–838. doi: 10.1007/s12015-023-10508-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — The treatment hypothesis based on monophyletic model. (A) Only surgery can completely remove a tumor, including CSCs, in the early stages of cancer. (B) Inflammatory factors, such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and PGE2, play an important role in cancer metastasis. Inflammatory inhibitors cannot prevent metastasis and achieve poor clinical efficacy when the primary tumor is not resected. (C) Inhibitors of inflammatory factors play an important role in preventing recurrence and progression after surgical resection