Table 3.

Strengths, weaknesses and hazards that contribute to reduced welfare in tie‐stall systems

Strengths	Reduced prevalence of certain claw disorders e.g. digital dermatitis and white‐line disease (review in Beaver et al., 2021)
	Reduced agonistic interactions within the herd (Popescu et al., 2014)
Weaknesses	Increased risk of integument damage (Ostojić Andrić et al., 2011; Bouffard et al., 2017; Bernhard et al., 2020)
	Increased risk of certain claw disorders e.g. heel erosion and lameness (Bielfeldt et al., 2005; Kara et al., 2011; Ostojić Andrić et al., 2011; Bouffard et al., 2017)
	Inhibited lying behaviour (Ostojić Andrić et al., 2011; Popescu et al., 2014; Bouffard et al., 2017)
	Inhibited social behaviour (review in Beaver et al., 2021)
	Restriction of movement (Veissier et al., 2008)
	Inhibition of oestrus behaviour (Felton et al., 2012)
Hazards of reduced welfare	Period of time tethered (i.e. permanent (year‐round) as opposed to periodic tethering of cows) (Regula et al., 2004; Popescu et al., 2013; Bernhard et al., 2020)
	Inappropriate stall dimensions (Bouffard et al., 2017)
	Inappropriate lying surface (Bernhard et al., 2020)
	Inappropriate characteristics of tethering (e.g. length of neck chain) (Bouffard et al., 2017)