Table 14.

Strengths, weaknesses and hazards that contribute to reduced welfare in systems that include access to pasture

Strengths	Reduced locomotor disorders e.g. dermatitis and heel horn erosion (Haskell et al., 2006; Hernandez‐Mendo et al., 2007; Rutherford et al., 2009; Olmos et al., 2009a; Burow et al., 2013a,b; de Vries et al., 2015; Wagner et al., 2017; Armbrecht et al., 2018; Sjöström et al., 2018; Crossley et al., 2021)
	Improved udder health (Goldberg et al., 1992; Washburn et al., 2002; Firth et al., 2019)
	Lower risk of reproductive disorders (Olmos et al., 2009b; Palmer et al., 2012)
	More natural behaviours (O'Connell et al., 1989; Singh et al., 1993; Krohn, 1994; Olmos et al., 2009a; Crump et al., 2019)
	Lower risk of dirty legs and udders (Ellis et al., 2007; Nielsen et al., 2011)
Weaknesses	Increased risk of thermal stress (review in Moons et al., 2014)
	Increased risk of parasitosis (Charlier et al., 2005; Forbes et al., 2008; Bennema et al., 2011)
	Increased risk of low body condition and metabolic disorders (Hernandez‐Mendo et al., 2007; Olmos et al., 2009b; Burow et al., 2013a; Crossley et al., 2021)
	Increased risk of locomotory and claw disorders e.g. sole ulcers (Chesterton et al., 1989; Clarkson et al., 1996; Barker et al., 2009; Burow et al., 2014; Bran et al., 2018; Navarro et al., 2013)
Hazards of reduced welfare	Insufficient shelter from adverse climatic conditions (review in Moons et al., 2014)
	Insufficient/discontinuous energy supply (review in Mee, 2012)
	Inadequate parasite control (review in Arnott et al., 2017)
	Poorly maintained walking tracks/roads, and rushing cattle while walking (Chesterton et al., 1989; Clarkson et al., 1996; Barker et al., 2009; Burow et al., 2014)