Table 2. Exercise-associated epigenetic alterations.
| Exercise | Individuals tested* | Intensity/Frequency during/in study | Epigenetic impact | References |
| Aerobic and resistance training (jogging, cycling, swimming, and others) | Healthy (male marathon runners) | Immediately after and 24h post marathon; | MiRNA modulator: changes in circulatory miRNA levels after racing | [232] |
| Healthy (male cyclists) | Before and after the supplementation in EVOO ** - alongside cycling - 4 weeks | DNAm modulator: levels of DNMT3A and DNMT3B mRNA expression decreased following exercise | [233] | |
| Non-Healthy (obese) | 3 months study, 2 times per week, 90 minutes session; | MiRNA modulator: i.e., miR-146a-5p levels were significantly decreased after intervention - positive impact in inflammation | [234] | |
| Non-Healthy (hypertensive) | 3 months study, 4 times per week, 40 minutes session | DNAm modulator: repetitive elements methylation (i.e., ALU), potential role in reducing systemic blood pressure | [208] | |
| Non-Healthy (colorectal cancer survivors) | 6 weeks - resistance exercise training - samples collected before and after intervention | DNAm modulator: changes in promoters of biologically related genes of processes such as immune response and disease; reduced methylation of disease preventive genes | [235] | |
| Aged (women; 68 ± 7.5 years old) | 4 study groups: resistance training, water aerobics, water aerobics and resistance exercise, and control group (non-practitioners) individuals, with 3+ months of practice, 2/3 times per week | DNAm modulator: increased global and gene specific (Interleukin-17 (IL-17A) and Interferon gamma (IFN-γ)) DNA methylation - positively impacting inflammation | [236] | |
| Aged (70–75 years old) | 12 weeks, low frequency, moderate intensity, explosive-type resistance training | DNAm modulator: reduction of global DNAm levels, together with better leukocyte telomere length maintenance | [237] | |
| Relaxation and stress targeted exercises (Tai Chi, Meditation, Yoga) | Healthy (women – 45 to 88 years old) | Tai Chi practitioners for 3+ years, for at least 1 hour per week) | DNAm modulator: decreased age-associated DNAm levels - trend more evident in older subjects (>55y) | [207] |
| Healthy (individuals younger than 52 years old and individuals aged 52 or older) | Meditation practitioners for 3+ years, for at least 30 minutes daily | DNAm modulator: Intrinsic Epigenetic Age Acceleration (IEAA) similar in practitioners younger and older than 52 years old. In the control group there were significative differences between age groups, with higher IEAA in the ≥ 52 group. | [211] | |
| Healthy (30 to 65 years old) | Yoga and Meditation Based Lifestyle Intervention (YMLI) 12 weeks, 5 days per week, 90 minutes per day | Genomic stability: DNA damage and genomic instability reduction. Cellular aging biomarkers improvement: increased balance of inflammation and cellular oxidative stress levels | [238] | |
| Non-Healthy (infertile males) | 21 days, daily Yoga practice – 1 hour per day Collection of samples before and after intervention | DNAm modulator: over 400 DNAm changes observed in fertility-associated gene promoters, together with improved sperm parameters | [239] | |
| Aged (community dwelling 60 + years old) | 1 month, daily Tai Chi practice - 1 hour per day | DNAm modulator: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoter demethylation - marker of depression recovery: marked results in depression symptoms improvement | [240] |
*The individual tested/participants were discriminated in their respective studies in accordance to medical conditions, gender and age. **EVOO stands for Extra Virgin Olive Oil.