FIGURE 1.

Research questions in venom biotechnology and the methods used to address them, showing the relevance of different levels of biological organization. Technologies, such as organoids and functional genomics, working at the genomic level, help to unravel venom system development, gene regulation, and modes of action. Approaches targeting the gene product include heterologous expression and, again, organoids. These guide studies on structure–function relationships, allow access the venom of non-milkable organisms, and facilitate the production of artificial derivatives of known venom components. Biosensors and functional genomics enable the interrogation of venom systems on the functional level, addressing questions on mode of action, resistance mechanisms, and structure–function relationships. Note that several technologies help to answer biological questions about venom systems across different levels of biological organization.