Table 1.
Cytokine and Chemokine Profiles Involved in Intestinal Fibrosis
| Cytokine | Pro- or anti-fibrosis |
Effects on intestinal fibrosis | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| IL-1 | Pro | Induce fibroblasts activation; enhance pro-fibrotic cytokines production; inhibit ECM degradation; enhance collagens expression | 104-106 |
| IL-4 | Pro | Promote myofibroblasts activation; promote type 2 immunity-induced fibrosis | 107,108 |
| IL-6 | Pro | Promote SMCs activation; promote fibroblasts activation and proliferation; enhance ECM production | 109-111 |
| IL-10 | Uncertain | Inhibit collagens deposition; no effects on fibroblasts and myofibroblasts | 112,113 |
| IL-11 | Pro | Enhance collagens expression; may promote SMCs hyperplasia | 114 |
| IL-12 | Pro | Promote inflammation | 115,116 |
| IL-13 | Pro | Promote TGF-β1 production; initiate fibrosis | 117,118 |
| IL-17 | Pro | Stimulate myofibroblasts activation; enhance collagens expression; decrease ECM degradation; induce EMT | 85,89,119 |
| IL-21 | Uncertain | Facilitate Th2 and Th17 development; enhance MMPs secretion | 120,121 |
| IL-22 | Pro | Inhibit inflammation; enhance MMPs secretion; promote myofibroblasts differentiation | 122-124 |
| IL-23 | Pro | Promote inflammation; promote fibrotic responses | 115,116,124 |
| IL-25 | Non | IL-13 production depends on IL-25; induce type 2 immunity; promote inflammation | 125,126 |
| IL-33 | Pro | Promote pro-fibrotic type 2 immunity | 127,128 |
| IL-34 | Pro | Enhance collagens expression; promote fibroblasts activation | 129 |
| IL-36 | Pro | Enhance collagens expression; promote fibroblasts activation | 130 |
| TL1A | Pro | Enhance collagens expression and pro-fibrotic molecules production; promote fibroblasts activation; induce EMT | 131,132 |
| IFN-γ | Anti | Inhibit TGF-β signaling; inhibit fibroblasts migration and myofibroblasts differentiation | 133-135 |
| TGF-β | Pro | Enhance pro-fibrotic molecules production; promote fibroblasts activation; induce EMT | 43,136-138 |
| CXCR4 | Pro | Mediate pro-fibrotic effects of PDGF-C | 139 |
| CCL11 | Pro | Induce eosinophils recruitment and in turn promote fibroblasts activation | 140 |
| CXCL8 | Pro | Promote pro-fibrotic growth factors production; enhance MMPs secretion | 141 |
IL, interleukin; ECM, extracellular matrix; SMCs, smooth muscle cells; TGF, transforming growth factor; EMT, epithelial-mesenchymal transition; Th, T helper; MMPs, matrix metalloproteinases; TL1A, tumor necrosis factor-like ligand 1A; IFN, interferon; CXCR4, C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4; PDGF-C, platelet-derived growth factor-C; CCL11, C-C motif chemokine ligand 11; CXCL8, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8.