Table 1.

Strategies for improving the immune response to nanoparticle-based phototherapies.

Strategy	Examples	Ref.
Enhancement of phototherapeutic effect
Enhanced absorption and ROS generation efficiency	CoWO4-x nanoplatform with wide absorption spectrum.	[75]
	p(MEO2MA-co-OEGMA)-b-pSS used to control the spacing between photosensitizers.	[60]
	Photosensitizer with aggregation-induced emission constructed using indole salt and pyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole.	[81]
Relieving tumor hypoxia	Synechococcus functionalized with ICG-loaded human serum albumin nanoparticles.	[61]
	pH-responsive nanoplatform co-loaded with Ce6 and a plasmid encoding catalase.	[101]
	Cu2+-doped zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 filled with oxygen and functionalized with the same MOF material loaded with Ce6 before coating with Pluronic F127.	[121]
Improving tumor accumulation	Nanoparticles self-assembled from Ce6 and the amphiphilic PEG-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) block copolymer attached with ICG-conjugated poly(amidoamine) dendrimers.	[129]
	Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles conjugated with the protease bromelain.	[131]
	Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles coated with platelet membrane.	[147]
Controlling subcellular localization	ICG-conjugated hollow gold nanospheres and hemoglobin-loaded liposomes functionalized with an ER-targeting pardaxin peptide.	[162]
	Hafnium-iridium MOF incorporated with a zinc-phthalocyanine photosensitizer.	[166]
	Gold nanorods coated with a nuclear localization signal peptide attached to an amphiphilic copolymer that was then adsorbed with siRNA targeting YTHDF1.	[174]
Combination of phototherapy with immune-enhancing treatments
Modulation of immune cell populations	High affinity agonistic antibody targeting the glucocorticoid-induced cancer necrosis factor receptor loaded onto polydopamine nanoparticles containing ICG and catalase.	[184]
	CaO2 nanoparticles loaded with ultrasmall CuS-MnO2 nanoparticles and coated with hyaluronic acid.	[187]
	Mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with IR780 and metformin and sealed with CeO2 nanoparticles.	[192]
Immune checkpoint blockade	Polydimethylsiloxane microneedles loaded with dextran nanoparticles co-encapsulated with anti-CTLA4 and the photosensitizer zinc phthalocyanine.	[216]
	Au@Pt adsorbed with PDL1 antagonist peptides DPPA-1 conjugated with a tumor-homing peptide LyP-1 via an MMP2-degradable peptide linker.	[217]
	Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles functionalized with the small molecule IDO1 inhibitor NLG919 using a singlet oxygen-responsive linker.	[219]
Enhancement of immune cell function	Nanovesicles self-assembled from CpG with black phosphorus quantum dots functionalized with PEG and hydrophobic ROS-sensitive poly(propylene sulfide).	[235]
	Gold nanorods grafted with an imidazoquinoline-based TLR7/8 agonistic polymer.	[238]
	OMVs from Escherichia coli engineered with human tumor necrosis factor related apoptosis-inducing ligand and conjugated with ICG and an RGD peptide.	[246]