TABLE 2.

Applications of organoids in disease modeling.

Organs or tissues	Diseases		Cell sources	References
Brain	Genetic diseases	Primary microcephaly	Human iPSCs and ESCs	148, 149
		Rett syndrome	Human ESCs and iPSCs	150
		Tuberous sclerosis complex	Human iPSCs	151, 152
		Fragile X syndrome	Human iPSCs	153
		Down syndrome	Human iPSCs	154
	Degenerative diseases	Parkinson's disease	Human iPSCs	45
		Alzheimer's disease	Human iPSCs	46
	Infection	ZIKV infection	Human ESCs and iPSCs	156, 220
		HSV‐1 infection	Human ESCs	156
		Human cytomegalovirus infection	Human iPSCs	163
		SARS‐CoV‐2 infection	Human iPSCs	174
	Tumor	Glioblastoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	64, 121
		Medulloblastoma	Human iPSCs	65
		Glioma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	66
Retina	Genetic diseases	Nonsyndromic CLN3 disease	Human iPSCs	142
		Retinitis pigmentosa	Human iPSCs	143
		Leber congenital amaurosis	Human iPSCs	144, 145
	Tumor	Retinoblastoma	Human iPSCs and ESCs	236
Air ways	Genetic diseases	CF‐related air way diseases	Human ASCs	132
	Infection	Respiratory syncytial virus infection	Human ASCs	132
		SARS‐CoV‐2 infection	Human iPSCs and ASCs	10, 161, 174, 175
		Influenza virus infection	Human ASCs	161
		Cryptosporidium infection	Human ASCs	180
	Tumor	Lung adenocarcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	71, 72
		Nonsmall‐cell lung cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	132, 216, 217
Gastrointestinal tract	Genetic diseases	CF‐related intestinal diseases	Human ASCs	134, 137
	Infection	SARS‐CoV‐2 infection	Human ASCs	10, 177
		H. pylori infection	Human iPSCs and ASCs	50, 182
		Human norovirus infection	Human ASCs	159, 160
		Cryptosporidium infection	Human ASCs	180
	Tumor	Neuroendocrine carcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	33, 69
		Colorectal cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	38, 208, 216, 217, 232
		Gastric cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	184, 251
Hepatobiliary	Genetic diseases	Primary sclerosing cholangitis	Human ASCs	59
		α1‐Antitrypsin deficiency	Human ASCs	112, 113
		Alagille syndrome	Human ASCs and iPSCs	113, 114
		Wilson's disease	Dog ASCs	115, 116
		Wolman disease	Human iPSCs	117
		CF‐related bile duct disease	Human ESCs	135
	Metabolic diseases	Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease	Human iPSCs, ASCs	97, 127, 194
		Alcoholic liver disease	Human ESCs	196
	Infection	Rotavirus infection	Human ESCs and ASCs	162
		Viral hepatitis	Human iPSCs, ASCs, and ESCs	167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172
		Salmonella Typhi infection	Mouse ASCs	186
	Fibrosis	Liver fibrosis	Human iPSCs	48
	Tumor	Cholangiocarcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	15, 30, 33, 205, 206
		Gallbladder adenoma	Human ASCs	32
		Gallbladder carcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	32, 33
		Bile duct ampullary adenocarcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	38
		Hepatocellular carcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells and human iPSCs	205, 207, 233
Pancreas	Genetic diseases	Pancreatic dysplasia	Human iPSCs	48
		Wolfram syndrome	Human iPSCs	128
		Congenital hyperinsulinism	Human ESCs	129
	Tumor	Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	231, 258, 264
Thyroid	Autoimmune diseases	Hashimoto's thyroiditis	Human ASCs	58
		Graves’ hyperthyroidism	Human and mouse ASCs	60
	Tumor	Papillary thyroid cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	241
Kidney	Genetic diseases	Polycystic kidney disease	Human iPSCs	19
	Injury	Kidney injury	Human iPSCs	20
	Infection	SARS‐CoV‐2 infection	Human iPSCs	176, 179
	Tumor	Renal cell carcinoma	Patient‐derived tumor cells	257
Heart	Genetic diseases	Hypoplastic left heart syndrome	Human iPSCs	140
		Pregestational diabetes‐induced congenital heart defects	Human iPSCs	141
Salivary gland	Tumor	Salivary gland tumor	Patient‐derived tumor cells	38, 68
Mammary gland	Tumor	Breast cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	62, 198, 261
Prostate gland	Tumor	Prostate cancer	Patient‐derived tumor cells	214
Lacrimal gland		Dry eye disease	Mouse and human ASCs	226
Vasculature	Metabolic diseases	Diabetic vasculopathy	Human iPSCs	47
Blood–brain barrier	Infection	Plasmodium falciparum infection	Human ASCs	181
		Lyme neuroborreliosis	Human ASCs	182

ASCs, adult stem cells; CF, cystic fibrosis; ESCs, embryonic stem cells; iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cells; SARS‐CoV‐2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; ZIKV, Zika virus.