Table 2a.
Proportion of subjects who consumed less than the lower reference values by the frequency of meals including staple, main and side dishes by age group*
| 6–11 years | 12–17 years | 18–40 years | 41–64 years | ≥65 years | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ref· † | Unit | Ref· † | ≤1 | 2 | ≥3 | P | Ref· † | ≤1 | 2 | ≥3 | P | Ref· † | ≤1 | 2 | ≥3 | P | Ref· † | ≤1 | 2 | ≥3 | P | Ref· † | ≤1 | 2 | ≥3 | P | |
| Male participants (n) | 206 | 543 | 167 | 220 | 534 | 222 | 1300 | 1462 | 446 | 1700 | 2451 | 991 | 1173 | 1785 | 1284 | ||||||||||||
| Protein | DG | %E | 13 | 25·8 | 9·8 | 6·0 | <0·001 | 13 | 29·1 | 19·9 | 16·3 | 0·002 | 13 | 36·8 | 26·7 | 15·3 | <0·001 | 13 | 28·8 | 24·9 | 14·3 | <0·001 | 13 | 27·0 | 14·7 | 7·4 | <0·001 |
| Fat | DG | %E | 20 | 2·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 20 | 4·6 | 1·2 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 20 | 7·4 | 4·0 | 2·7 | <0·001 | 20 | 15·7 | 11·3 | 11·5 | <0·001 | 20 | 39·8 | 27·4 | 27·6 | <0·001 |
| Carbohydrate | DG | %E | 50 | 10·7 | 10·9 | 4·2 | 0·031 | 50 | 11·9 | 9·4 | 7·7 | <0·001 | 50 | 21·7 | 16·7 | 9·5 | <0·001 | 50 | 32·9 | 19·3 | 13·1 | <0·001 | 50 | 14·5 | 9·2 | 4·6 | <0·001 |
| Dietary fiber | DG | g | 12 | 63·6 | 37·8 | 15·6 | <0·001 | 18 | 87·8 | 76·1 | 46·4 | <0·001 | 20 | 82·9 | 75·8 | 53·0 | <0·001 | 20 | 75·9 | 70·1 | 46·3 | <0·001 | 20 | 81·0 | 66·3 | 48·2 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin A | EAR | μg RAE | 369 | 16·0 | 1·8 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 599 | 59·1 | 34·1 | 18·0 | <0·001 | 630 | 73·7 | 53·3 | 29·4 | <0·001 | 616 | 72·9 | 54·9 | 28·0 | <0·001 | 565 | 65·0 | 43·2 | 23·5 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B1 | EAR | mg/4184 kJ | 0·45 | 58·7 | 42·4 | 35·9 | <0·001 | 0·45 | 60·9 | 59·9 | 54·1 | 0·253 | 0·45 | 54·9 | 57·4 | 50·9 | 0·076 | 0·45 | 61·3 | 63·3 | 56·0 | <0·001 | 0·45 | 64·9 | 55·8 | 54·0 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B2 | EAR | mg/4184 kJ | 0·50 | 5·8 | 1·1 | 3·6 | 0·001 | 0·50 | 28·6 | 16·1 | 17·1 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 36·5 | 43·2 | 25·8 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 24·9 | 30·2 | 18·9 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 19·1 | 12·0 | 7·9 | <0·001 |
| Niacin | EAR | mg NE/4184 kJ | 4·8 | 21·4 | 7·4 | 3·6 | <0·001 | 4·8 | 10·9 | 8·4 | 4·5 | 0·044 | 4·8 | 3·6 | 1·4 | 0·4 | <0·001 | 4·8 | 1·5 | 0·4 | 0·2 | <0·001 | 4·8 | 2·6 | 0·3 | 0·2 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B6 | EAR | mg | 0·8 | 36·4 | 7·7 | 1·2 | <0·001 | 1·2 | 42·7 | 22·1 | 4·5 | <0·001 | 1·2 | 18·4 | 5·2 | 0·9 | <0·001 | 1·2 | 14·2 | 4·5 | 1·6 | <0·001 | 1·2 | 29·2 | 10·7 | 5·4 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B12 | EAR | μg | 1·2 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 2·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 2·0 | 0·4 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·031 | 2·0 | 0·4 | 0·0 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 2·0 | 1·1 | 0·0 | 0·1 | <0·001 |
| Folate | EAR | μg | 124 | 2·4 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·002 | 200 | 15·5 | 4·9 | 1·4 | <0·001 | 200 | 5·4 | 2·3 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 200 | 3·7 | 0·8 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 200 | 4·5 | 1·3 | 0·0 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin C | EAR | mg | 52 | 53·4 | 26·2 | 10·8 | <0·001 | 82 | 66·8 | 48·7 | 23·4 | <0·001 | 85 | 61·4 | 46·2 | 19·1 | <0·001 | 85 | 44·4 | 30·5 | 11·3 | <0·001 | 85 | 29·4 | 15·5 | 6·3 | <0·001 |
| Ca | EAR | mg | 551 | 31·6 | 18·2 | 13·8 | <0·001 | 752 | 70·9 | 63·3 | 55·4 | 0·003 | 590 | 58·8 | 59·8 | 47·3 | <0·001 | 584 | 53·7 | 53·9 | 39·9 | <0·001 | 600 | 64·9 | 53·8 | 44·9 | <0·001 |
| Mg | EAR | mg | 144 | 6·8 | 0·4 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 274 | 60·9 | 49·6 | 27·9 | <0·001 | 298 | 54·7 | 46·2 | 25·8 | <0·001 | 296 | 37·0 | 34·7 | 17·7 | <0·001 | 276 | 48·4 | 33·9 | 20·7 | <0·001 |
| Fe | EAR | mg | 6 | 69·4 | 41·6 | 20·4 | <0·001 | 8 | 46·4 | 30·3 | 14·9 | <0·001 | 6 | 0·9 | 0·3 | 0·0 | 0·022 | 6 | 1·1 | 0·2 | 0·1 | <0·001 | 6 | 3·9 | 1·0 | 0·0 | <0·001 |
| Zn | EAR | mg | 5 | 1·5 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·006 | 8 | 1·8 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·008 | 8 | 2·6 | 0·3 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 8 | 4·8 | 1·2 | 0·1 | <0·001 | 8 | 29·0 | 13·9 | 5·9 | <0·001 |
| Cu | EAR | mg | 0·4 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 0·7 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 0·7 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·125 | 0·7 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·048 | 0·7 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·073 |
| Female participants (n) | 232 | 560 | 147 | 214 | 449 | 180 | 1574 | 1257 | 368 | 2331 | 2441 | 949 | 1705 | 2263 | 1315 | ||||||||||||
| Protein | DG | %E | 13 | 26·8 | 9·2 | 5·5 | <0·001 | 13 | 25·3 | 8·5 | 6·7 | <0·001 | 13 | 26·5 | 14·5 | 5·5 | <0·001 | 13 | 21·0 | 9·5 | 4·5 | <0·001 | 13 | 20·2 | 8·5 | 2·2 | <0·001 |
| Fat | DG | %E | 20 | 0 | 0·2 | 0·7 | 0·361 | 20 | 1·0 | 0·0 | 0·6 | 0·148 | 20 | 2·1 | 0·8 | 0·6 | 0·005 | 20 | 6·3 | 2·6 | 2·2 | <0·001 | 20 | 25·9 | 15·3 | 14·0 | <0·001 |
| Carbohydrate | DG | %E | 50 | 13·4 | 10·6 | 6·9 | 0·130 | 50 | 20·1 | 14·7 | 7·8 | 0·003 | 50 | 22·3 | 15·6 | 12·8 | <0·001 | 50 | 16·4 | 10·4 | 7·2 | <0·001 | 50 | 4·0 | 2·3 | 2·2 | 0·002 |
| Dietary fiber | DG | g | 12 | 70·3 | 48·1 | 15·0 | <0·001 | 16 | 76·7 | 56·0 | 35·0 | <0·001 | 18 | 85·2 | 80·3 | 65·5 | <0·001 | 18 | 70·5 | 61·7 | 44·0 | <0·001 | 17 | 60·2 | 47·7 | 31·2 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin A | EAR | μgRAE | 351 | 5·6 | 0·5 | 1·4 | <0·001 | 500 | 6·1 | 0·5 | 7·2 | <0·001 | 480 | 44·6 | 27·8 | 10·6 | <0·001 | 500 | 48·7 | 28·4 | 18·1 | <0·001 | 472 | 38·5 | 25·2 | 11·9 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B1 | EAR | mg/4184 kJ | 0·45 | 65·1 | 47·7 | 36·1 | <0·001 | 0·45 | 55·1 | 51·2 | 51·1 | 0·607 | 0·45 | 45·2 | 50·0 | 48·1 | 0·015 | 0·45 | 47·6 | 46·8 | 40·7 | 0·001 | 0·45 | 50·7 | 44·5 | 30·1 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B2 | EAR | mg/4184 kJ | 0·50 | 16·8 | 2·5 | 6·8 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 24·8 | 15·4 | 12·8 | 0·002 | 0·50 | 25·9 | 28·5 | 16·3 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 23·1 | 17·0 | 12·4 | <0·001 | 0·50 | 15·8 | 11·8 | 6·5 | <0·001 |
| Niacin | EAR | mg NE/4184 kJ | 4·8 | 19·4 | 10·0 | 2·7 | <0·001 | 4·8 | 11·7 | 6·0 | 3·9 | 0·005 | 4·8 | 2·8 | 0·6 | 0·3 | <0·001 | 4·8 | 0·7 | 0·4 | 0·0 | 0·027 | 4·8 | 1·2 | 0·2 | 0·1 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B6 | EAR | mg | 0·8 | 44·0 | 17·3 | 4·8 | <0·001 | 1·1 | 40·7 | 25·6 | 16·7 | <0·001 | 1·0 | 28·7 | 18·1 | 4·3 | 0·027 | 1·0 | 19·8 | 9·2 | 3·8 | <0·001 | 1·0 | 24·9 | 14·5 | 5·8 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B12 | EAR | μg | 1·5 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 2·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 2·0 | 0·9 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·003 | 2·0 | 0·7 | 0·2 | 0·1 | 0·009 | 2·0 | 0·9 | 0·1 | 0·0 | <0·001 |
| Folate | EAR | μg | 124 | 4·7 | 0·0 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 199 | 15·0 | 2·9 | 1·7 | <0·001 | 200 | 15·6 | 7·8 | 0·8 | <0·001 | 200 | 5·5 | 1·7 | 0·6 | <0·001 | 200 | 4·9 | 1·9 | 0·2 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin C | EAR | mg | 52 | 44·0 | 25·5 | 10·2 | <0·001 | 82 | 55·6 | 49·4 | 39·4 | 0·006 | 85 | 56·6 | 48·8 | 26·9 | <0·001 | 85 | 35·6 | 25·5 | 12·9 | <0·001 | 85 | 22·0 | 15·0 | 7·3 | <0·001 |
| Ca | EAR | mg | 554 | 47·8 | 24·3 | 23·8 | <0·001 | 632 | 57·9 | 37·4 | 28·9 | <0·001 | 550 | 66·1 | 65·3 | 59·0 | 0·035 | 550 | 54·2 | 50·3 | 42·6 | <0·001 | 522 | 52·3 | 43·1 | 33·9 | <0·001 |
| Mg | EAR | mg | 144 | 12·9 | 2·1 | 0·7 | <0·001 | 249 | 56·5 | 36·3 | 21·7 | <0·001 | 236 | 50·1 | 44·2 | 23·4 | <0·001 | 240 | 27·3 | 24·3 | 13·7 | <0·001 | 220 | 28·0 | 17·4 | 9·3 | <0·001 |
| Fe | EAR | mg | 8 | 96·6 | 93·0 | 78·9 | <0·001 | 9 | 83·2 | 76·2 | 56·1 | <0·001 | 9 | 80·5 | 76·4 | 56·5 | <0·001 | 9 | 70·8 | 60·6 | 42·4 | <0·001 | 7 | 30·4 | 18·8 | 6·9 | <0·001 |
| Zn | EAR | mg | 5 | 0·9 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·047 | 7 | 1·9 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·003 | 6 | 2·5 | 0·2 | 0·0 | <0·001 | 6 | 2·3 | 0·3 | 0·1 | <0·001 | 6 | 8·9 | 2·8 | 0·7 | <0·001 |
| Cu | EAR | mg | 0·4 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 0·6 | 0·00 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 0·6 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·212 | 0·6 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·0 | – | 0·6 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·123 |
DG, dietary goal; EAR, estimated average requirement; %E, proportion of energy from each nutrient; RAE, retinol equivalent; NE, niacin equivalent.
*
The proportion of subjects who consumed less than the DG or EAR was estimated using the best power method.
†
Reference values (Ref.) were calculated as the weighted mean values of subjects, including each sex and age group. The P-value was estimated using the χ2 test. ≤1, 2 and ≥3 indicate the frequency of SMS meals per day. An SMS meal was defined as a combination of staple, main and side dishes.