Figure 3.

The role of autophagy in breast cancer, its drug resistance and the approaches of autophagy pathway modulation. Autophagy plays a dual role in cancers, according to the stage of tumors. In general, it acts as a tumor suppressor in early stages, while in established tumors, it promotes tumor progression. During chemotherapy or radiotherapy, autophagy is activated to provide nutrients for tumors and induce drug resistance. Autophagy inducers lead to autophagy activation, which finally promotes cell death in an autophagy-dependent manner. In contrast, autophagy inhibitors suppress the nutrient pathway for tumors, ultimately leading to apoptotic cell death.