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. 2023 May 19;9:34. doi: 10.1186/s40798-023-00577-5

Table 2.

Summary of the main outcomes of individual studies

Study Time of assessment Pre-intervention Post-intervention Post–pre
Morning training Evening training Morning training Evening training Morning training Evening training (∆ evening training–∆ morning training) (p)
(mean ± SD) (mean ± SD) (mean difference)
Anthropometric outcome measures
 Body fat content (%)
  Alizadeh et al. [49] AM 35.7 ± 1.7 35.7 ± 2.1 34.6 ± 2.0 35.1 ± 2.3 − 1.1 − 0.6 0.5 0.26
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 41.7 ± 8.1 40.6 ± 8.9 40.5 ± 9.8 40.0 ± 8.3 − 1.2 − 0.6 0.6 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 41.3 ± 7.4 42.7 ± 7.3 40.6 ± 8.1 41.6 ± 7.6 − 0.7 − 1.1 − 0.4 0.48
  Krčmárová et al. [62] AM 41.8 ± 4.9 42.2 ± 6.8 39.5 ± 5.7 40.4 ± 7.0 − 2.3 − 1.8 0.5  ≥ 0.05
  Saidi et al. [63] AM 42.4 ± 7.8 42.1 ± 8.0 40.7 ± 7.9 39.6 ± 8.6 − 1.7 − 2.5 − 0.8 0.35
 Quadriceps femoris volume (cm3)
  Sedliak et al. [67] n.r 2180 ± 340 2118 ± 217 2237 ± 342 2192 ± 220 57 74 17 0.19
 Quadriceps femoris cross-sectional area (mm2)
  Sedliak et al. [68] AM/PM 7721 ± 795 8689 ± 1519 8385 ± 828 9674 ± 1495 664 985 321  ≥ 0.05
Performance-related outcome measures
 VO2max (mL/kg/min)
  Brito et al. [52] AM 21.4 ± 3.2 21.4 ± 3.4 23.1 ± 3.4 23.0 ± 4.6 1.7 1.6 − 0.1  ≥ 0.05
PM 22.2 ± 3.2 21.0 ± 4.1 24.5 ± 3.9 23.3 ± 3.8 2.3 2.3 0  ≥ 0.05
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 30.7 ± 5.1 28.5 ± 7.0 35.9 ± 8.3 33.1 ± 8.7 5.2 4.6 − 0.6 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 29.1 ± 6.3 28.0 ± 7.5 33.6 ± 8.2 33.2 ± 8.6 4.5 5.2 0.7 0.82
 12.5 m swim performance (s)
  Ferchichi et al. [60] AM 9.66 ± 0.49 9.87 ± 0.75 7.37 ± 0.30 8.75 ± 0.21 − 2.29 − 1.12 1.17  < 0.01
PM 7.81 ± 0.75 8.26 ± 0.87 7.43 ± 0.54 7.11 ± 0.14 − 0.38 − 1.15 − 0.77  < 0.01
 30-s Wingate mean power output (W/kg)
  Boussetta et al. [51] AM 7.92 ± 0.17 8.51 ± 0.13 9.12 ± 0.24 8.39 ± 0.15 1.20 − 0.12 − 1.32  ≥ 0.05
PM 8.53 ± 0.13 9.14 ± 0.16 9.14 ± 0.20 9.11 ± 0.20 0.61 − 0.03 − 0.64  ≥ 0.05
  Chtourou et al. [57] AM 7.93 ± 0.47 7.65 ± 0.58 8.87 ± 0.65 7.70 ± 0.58 0.94 0.05 − 0.89  < 0.001
PM 8.21 ± 0.53 8.07 ± 0.49 8.76 ± 0.61 8.77 ± 0.55 0.55 0.70 0.15  < 0.001
  Chtourou et al. [58] AM 8.21 ± 0.95 8.31 ± 0.74 8.42 ± 0.81 8.50 ± 0.80 0.21 0.19 − 0.02  ≥ 0.05
PM 8.58 ± 0.76 8.76 ± 0.77 8.58 ± 0.83 9.00 ± 0.78 0.00 0.24 0.24  ≥ 0.05
  Souissi et al. [71] AM 7.12 ± 0.64 7.01 ± 0.85 7.63 ± 0.68 7.22 ± 1.00 0.51 0.21 − 0.30  < 0.05
PM 7.48 ± 0.59 7.48 ± 0.97 7.61 ± 0.51 7.98 ± 1.06 0.13 0.50 0.37  < 0.05
 Electromyography activation (µV)
  Gueldich et al. [61] AM 970 ± 150 1040 ± 130 1600 ± 140 1630 ± 60 630 590 − 40  < 0.01
PM 1340 ± 120 1270 ± 130 1670 ± 100 2120 ± 30 330 850 520  < 0.01
  Sedliak et al. [66] AM 324 ± 133 339 ± 153 379 ± 151 373 ± 157 55 34 − 21  ≥ 0.05
PM 321 ± 125 339 ± 159 369 ± 148 347 ± 177 48 8 − 40  ≥ 0.05
Health-related outcome measures
 FEV1 (L)
  Silva et al. [69] n.r 1.73 ± 0.29 1.74 ± 0.38 1.81 ± 0.24 1.80 ± 0.34 0.08 0.06 − 0.02  ≥ 0.05
 Resting systolic blood pressure (mmHg)
  Brito et al. [52] AM 133 ± 14 129 ± 10 128 ± 13 123 ± 5 − 5 − 6 − 1  < 0.05
PM 134 ± 14 134 ± 11 134 ± 14 125 ± 7 0 − 9 − 9  < 0.05
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 119 ± 10 135 ± 6 114 ± 7 121 ± 8 − 5 − 14 − 9 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 120 ± 16 126 ± 16 118 ± 15 120 ± 10 − 2 − 6 − 4 0.25
 Resting diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)
  Brito et al. [52] AM 90 ± 6 91 ± 5 90 ± 6 87 ± 5 0 − 4 − 4  ≥ 0.05
PM 91 ± 6 92 ± 7 91 ± 7 89 ± 7 0 − 3 − 3  ≥ 0.05
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 84 ± 8 86 ± 9 80 ± 6 84 ± 10 − 4 − 2 2 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 85 ± 11 85 ± 11 81 ± 11 82 ± 9 − 4 − 3 1 0.08
 Fasting glucose (mmol/L)
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 5.6 ± 0.7 6.0 ± 1.0 5.5 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 0.4 − 0.1 − 0.7 − 0.6 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 5.5 ± 0.5 5.7 ± 0.5 5.5 ± 0.6 5.6 ± 0.5 0 − 0.1 − 0.1 0.41
  Krčmárová et al. [62] AM 5.8 ± 0.4 5.6 ± 0.9 5.6 ± 0.6 5.1 ± 0.5 − 0.2 − 0.5 − 0.3  < 0.05
  Savikj et al. [64] AM 7.3 ± 1.0 7.3 ± 1.0 7.7 ± 1.3 7.5 ± 1.0 0.4 0.2 − 0.2  ≥ 0.05
  Teo et al. [72] AM 7.7 ± 1.7 8.3 ± 3.7 6.8 ± 1.5 7.1 ± 2.4 − 0.9 − 1.2 − 0.3 0.42
 Hb1Ac (%)
  Savikj et al. [64] AM 6.6 ± 1.3 6.6 ± 1.3 6.3 ± 0.7 6.4 ± 0.7 − 0.3 − 0.2 0.1  ≥ 0.05
  Teo et al. [72] AM 6.9 ± 1.2 6.8 ± 1.7 6.6 ± 1.1 6.5 ± 1.5 − 0.3 − 0.3 0 0.79
 Insulin (pmol/L)
  Savikj et al. [64] AM 56.9 ± 30.1 56.9 ± 30.1 71.4 ± 22.9 70.4 ± 38.5 14.5 13.5 − 1  ≥ 0.05
  Teo et al. [72] AM 88.3 ± 33.9 81.0 ± 29.7 64.4 ± 23.4 58.6 ± 22.1 − 23.9 − 22.4 1.5 0.85
 Low-density lipoprotein (mmol/L)
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 3.1 ± 0.7 2.6 ± 0.6 2.7 ± 0.6 2.4 ± 04 − 0.4 − 0.2 0.2 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 2.9 ± 0.8 2.7 ± 0.7 2.6 ± 0.7 2.8 ± 0.9 − 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.51
  Krčmárová et al. [62] AM 2.6 ± 0.8 3.4 ± 1.3 3.0 ± 0.9 3.6 ± 1.4 0.4 0.2 − 0.2  ≥ 0.05
  Savikj et al. [64] AM 2.4 ± 1.3 2.4 ± 1.3 2.4 ± 1.3 2.3 ± 1.3 0.0 − 0.1 − 0.1  ≥ 0.05
 High-density lipoprotein (mmol/L)
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 1.7 ± 0.4 1.0 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.1 − 0.2 − 0.1 0.1 n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 1.4 ± 0.5 1.3 ± 0.4 1.4 ± 0.4 1.3 ± 0.4 0 0 0 0.87
  Krčmárová et al. [62] AM 1.5 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.4 1.5 ± 0.4 1.7 ± 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.2  ≥ 0.05
  Savikj et al. [64] AM 1.2 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.3 1.3 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.3 0.1 0.0 − 0.1  ≥ 0.05
 Triglycerides (mmol/L)
  Brooker et al. [54] AM 1.3 ± 0.8 1.4 ± 1.1 1.0 ± 0.4 1.2 ± 0.5 − 0.3 − 0.2

0.1

n.r
  Brooker et al. [55] n.r 1.3 ± 0.7 1.4 ± 0.6 1.3 ± 0.7 1.4 ± 0.8 0 0 0 0.91
  Krčmárová et al. [62] AM 1.4 ± 0.4 1.7 ± 1.0 1.6 ± 0.4 1.3 ± 0.7 0.2 − 0.4 − 0.6  < 0.01

Note that the specific outcomes examined in the meta-analysis are not presented in the table to prevent overlap as they are shown in Fig. 3 and Table S1

SD standard deviation, AM at morning, PM past morning, n.r. not reported, VO2max maximal oxygen consumption, FEV1 forced expiratory volume in one second, HbA1c hemoglobin A1c. All blood samples were collected in a fasted state

For all outcomes with a p ≥ 0.05, no specific p value was reported in the respective study