Table 1.
GBM biomarkers and detection methods
| # | Biomarker | Methods | Comments | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Solid tumor | MRI | Solid tumors are typically highly aggressive, difficult to treat with complete surgical resection or radiotherapy, and are associated with frequent recurrences and poor prognosis | [34, 35] |
| 2 | miRNAs | RT-PCR | Some miRNAs, such as miR-10b, miR-5096, mi-R-709, and miR-19a to contribute to oligodendrocytes’ differentiation | [36, 37] |
| 3 |
IDH IDH IDH |
Miniature mass spectrometer | IDH mutant GBM represents the terminal malignant progression of IDH mutant diffuse astrocytoma (WHO grade II) or IDH mutant anaplastic astrocytoma (WHO grade III) | [38, 39] |
| MRI | – | [40] | ||
| Multiparameter MRI | – | [41] | ||
| 4 | EVs | Mass spectrometry | EVs derived from the serum of GBM patients are also associated with tumor-driving cytokines that support the Th2 phenotype rather than the Th1 phenotype | [31, 42] |
| 5 | EGFR | Mass spectrometry | Many changes in the EGFR gene have been identified in gliomas, particularly glioblastomas, including amplifications, deletions, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) | [43] |
| 6 | p16INK4a gene | Gen methylation | p16INK4A is a tumor suppressor gene commonly associated with mutation and/or deletion found in many human tumors, including glioblastomas, melanoma, and leukemias | [44, 45] |
| 7 | Phospholipid metabolites | ELISA | Lipid metabolism, particularly phospholipid metabolism, is significantly altered in various types of cancers, including GBM | [46–48] |
| 8 | Cancer stem cells | MRI | GBM, the most common and malignant primary brain tumor, contains self-renewing, tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) that play a role in to tumor development and contribute to resistance to therapy | [49, 50] |
| 9 | PTEN | Next generation screening | PTEN is a PIP3 phosphatase that functions as an antagonist to carcinogenic PI3 kinase signaling. It is one of the most potent mutant tumor suppressors, particularly in brain tumors, as it plays an crucial role in suppressing strong signaling pathways | [51, 52] |
Diagnostic imaging is one of several techniques for GBM diagnosis, as detailed in Table 1. Despite its benefits, this approach has certain disadvantages, the most significant of which is its lack of specificity. Imaging technology also needs expensive, high-tech equipment as well as qualified employees
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging, RT-PCR Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, TH2 T helper 2, TH1 T helper 1, EVs Extracellular vesicles, IDH isocitrate dehydrogenase, MGMT O6-methylguanine DNA methyl transferase, EGFR epidermal growth factor receptor, TP53 tumors suppressor protein, PTEN phosphatase and tensin homolog