Table 1.

Summary of modeling methods, strengths and limitations, and applicability of the PAS mouse models.

Model	Approaches	Strengths	Limitations	Applicability	Reference
Surgery-induced models	Uterine incision	Accompanied by impaired immune and inflammatory environment in the maternal–fetal interface	Invasive surgery, possibly embryonic resorption	Suitable for the research of disordered immune and inflammation in maternal–fetal interface of PAS	(50)
	Cesarean section	Damage to the myometrium, simulate the most essential PAS risk factor CS	Invasive surgery, disturb the estrous cycle	More suitable to investigate the pathomechanism of PAS in the aspect of myometrium abnormalities	(68)
	Dilation & curettage	Surgical procedures before pregnancy, mostly impair the endometrium	Invasive repeated operation	More suitable to investigate the pathomechanism of PAS in the aspect of endometrial abnormalities	(68)
Genetically modified models	Simulate the decidual deficiency (Gab3 knockout)	High stability theoretically, non-invasive, pinpoint the role of specific gene in PAS progress	The modeling success rate might be relatively low, possible embryonic death, lower birth rates	Suitable to investigate the pathomechanism of PAS in aspect of decidua deficiency, also to explore the mechanism of uNK cells in the PAS	(74)
	Simulate the excessive invasion of EVT (MARVELD1knockout)			Simulate the excessive invasion of trophoblast cells of PAS	(75)
	Simulate the invasion of the mature placenta (adrenomedullin knockdown)			Optimal tool to study the placental vascular remodeling in PAS, also suitable to develop the angiogenesis-related marker in serum.	(76)