Skip to main content
. 2023 May 10;17(5):e0011315. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011315

Table 2. Selected behaviour change interventions for schistosomiasis control according to intervention model.

Reference Place Setting Time Direct beneficiaries Species Behaviours targeted Theory / Framework Intervention components Education materials Community engagement
HEALTH EDUCATION INTERVENTIONS
Chaula & Tarimo, 2014 [45] Tanzania Rural: Schools 2011–2012 a Schoolchildren (8–19) S. haematobium - Exposure
- Treatment uptake
Not reported (N.R.) - Health education: Advocacy campaigns alongside two successive MDA campaigns.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel
N.R. No
Cline & Hewlett, 1996 [46] Cameroon Rural: villages 1991–1993 a Schoolchildren a S. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
- Treatment seeking
N.R. - Health education:
- Training for elementary school teachers and health centre staff.
- Health centres developed education plans.
- Private and public school, Koranic schools and community groups supported education activities.
- Classroom-based education with sensitisation materials twice per year (‘season of transmission’ and ‘season of symptoms’).
- Drawing and writing competitions, with prizes.
- Supervision by health centre staff and district chief of preventive medicine.
- Treatment:
- School-based diagnostic tests and tests-and-treatment services in primary care at a cost (0.25$ and 1.50$, respectively).
- Snail control: Molluscicides in two intervention villages.
- lip-chartsb
- Postersb
- Brochuresb
Community organisations supported dissemination of health messages.
Ejike et al., 2017 [47] Nigeria Rural: Schools Jul–Aug 2014 Schoolchildren (5–19) S. haematobium - Exposure N.R. - Health education: Play with educational board game daily at school breaks for 2 months. - Board game No
Ejike et al., 2021 [48] Nigeria Rural: schools Oct 2018-Mar 2019 Schoolchildren (5–19) S. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
- Treatment uptake
N.R. - Health education: Playing with board game daily during school breaks, over 6 months.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel
- Board game No
Favre et al., 2021 [49] Brazil Urban and Rural: schools Ag 2013 –Dec 2015 Schoolchildren (10–15) S. mansoni - Exposure
- Treatment uptake
N.R. - Health education:
- 5-day training for schoolteachers with 6-month refresher session.
- Twice a week lectures for schoolchildren over 3 months.
- Thematic fairs (e.g., song, plays, games).
- PC treatment: Targeted treatment with praziquantel
- Animated video c
- Video-documentary c
- Snail samples.
No
Garba et al, 2001 [50] Niger Rural: villages and schools 1991–1996 General population S. haematobium - Exposure N.R. - Health education—Community:
- Informative video shown in villages (up to 5 times).
- Community discussions led by local health and sanitation technicians using flipcharts.
- Health education—Schools:
- Projection of 26m informative video in local dialect.
- Distribution of informative materials and schoolbooks.
- Educational videob
- Posters and flipchartsb
- School booksb
No
Guang-Han et al., 2005 [51] China Rural: schools and villages 1992–1994 (2 villages)
1994–1996 (4 villages) a
Schoolchildren (6–15) and adults (16–60) S. japonicum - Exposure
- Treatment uptake
N.R. - Health education:
- Health information through videos and exhibitions of schistosomes and snails.
- Informative sessions with separate tailored messages for men, women, and children.
- Teachers praised pupils’ good behaviour and penalised incorrect practices.
- Public information: Warning boards near high-transmission areas.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel.
- Videob
- Schistosome and snail exhibition
- Warning boardsb
No
Hong et al., 2011 [52] China Rural: communities 2005–2008 a Schoolchildren (6–15) and adults (16–60) S. japonicum - Exposure
- Treatment uptake
N.R. - Health education: Health information through videos, cartoons, and booklets thrice a year over three years.
- Infrastructure: Lavatories and tap water for all households. Public toilets built at landing sites.
- Equipment: Containers for collection of faeces for fish folk.
- Snail control: Twice a year surveys, with molluscicide treatment.
- Treatment (humans): Targeted treatment with praziquantel.
- Treatment (livestock): Annual targeted treatment of livestock.
- Cartoons b
- Videos b
- Comic-style booklets b
No
Jia-Gang et al., 2005 [53] China Rural: villages Feb. 1999 –Feb. 2000 Children and adults (6–60) S. japonicum - Treatment seeking N.R. - Health education:
- Health information through videos and exhibitions of schistosome and snail samples.
- Training on symptoms, prevention, and importance of early treatment with men, women, and children.
- Treatment: MDAs with praziquantel for control group and self-referral for intervention group.
- Video b
- Schistosome and snail exhibition
No
Lansdown et al., 2002 [54] Tanzania Rural: schools Mar 1998 –Feb 1999 Schoolchildren (7–15) S. mansoni and. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
N.R. Health education:- Briefing to community leaders.
- 4-day workshop for teachers on active teaching, parasitology, and prevention.
- Classroom-based teaching on water use, prevention and sanitation.
Locally developed materials: songs, poems, pictures and plays.
- Message boards b
- Illustrations b
- No
N’Diaye et al., 2016 [55] Senegal Rural: villages 2008–2015a Children (0–14) S. mansoni and haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
N.R. Health education:- Village meetings with video and card games and snail samples organised by civil and religious authorities alongside MDA campaigns.
- Sensitisation focus on mothers with small children.Treatment: MDAs with praziquantel during 2009–14, targeted treatment in 2015 and for pre-SAC (0–5) in 2014.Infrastructure: Pit latrines, one per ten residents built over 6 years.
- Card games illustrating life cycle b
- Video b
- Snail samples
- Villagers’ input for latrine design.
- Villagers helped building latrines.
Nagi et al. 2005 [56] Yemen Rural: village and school Sep 1999 –Dec 2001 General population S. haematobium - Exposure
- Treatment uptake
N.R. Health education:- 2-day training sessions for teachers.
- Trained teachers led weekly educational sessions at school.
- Weekly sessions for non-enrolled children and pre-school children with their parents.
- Educational sessions during khat sessions and Friday prayers.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel.
- Posters b No
Oyeyemi et al., 2018 [57] Nigeria Rural: communities Jan 2016 General population S. haematobium - Exposure N.R. - Health education: Disease information provided during urine sample collection.
Infrastructure: Community borehole (post-sample collection).
Treatment: Targeted treatment with praziquantel.
N.R. No
Stothard et al., 2016 [58] Tanzania Urban and rural: schools Dec 2005 –Jan 2007 Schoolchildren (Primary—Class V) S. haematobium - Exposure.
- Transmission
N.R. - Health education:
- 30-minute talk by health educator prior distribution of comic strip.
- Comic book integrated into the health curricula over a year.
Juma na kichocho comic strip [59] No
Wang et al., 2013 [60] China Rural: villages April to June 2009 Adults S. japonicum - Exposure
- Transmission
- Treatment uptake
N.R. - Health education:
- Class-based sessions with posters, display boards, and a video.
- Reinforcement sessions with prize-winning quizzes.
- Distribution of small goods with printed information to residents.
- Treatment: Targeted treatment with praziquantel.
- Display boards [60]
- Video b
- Pamphlets b
- Utensils: towels, bags, containers [60]
No.
Wolmarans & de Knock, 2009 [61] South Africa Rural: schools Jan 2004—Dec 2006. Schoolchildren (4–14) S. haematobium - Exposure N.R. - Health education: Puppet show delivered over a 2-year period.
- Treatment: Targeted treatment with praziquantel.
- Puppet show b No.
Yuan et al., 2000 [62] China Rural: schools July 1996 Schoolchildren (4th grade) S. japonicum - Exposure N.R. - Health education:
- 15-minute animation video presented in class
- 10-minute discussion with local NTD control staff.
- Distribution of educational comic to pupils.
- Animated video b
- Comic book b
No.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTIONS
Nsowah-Nuamah et al. 2001 [63] Ghana Rural: villages Ap. 1994- May 1997 General population S. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
N.R. - Health education—Passive:
- Video shown in the community (once).
- Briefing to local leaders with posters and flipcharts.
- Educational sessions led by teachers, village, and religious leaders during regular meeting times of their organisations.
- Health education—Active:
- Informative video shows once a month, per 18 months.
- In-depth training for community volunteers.
- Trained volunteers visited parents of SAC twice a week for 18 months to educate on the disease and control measures.
- Spelling and quiz competitions.
c. Community organisation—Active:
- Community meetings to plan activities.
- Committees for safe water, latrine building and environmental management.
d. Infrastructure:
- Financial and technical assistance for construction of safe water supply and pit latrines as well as weed removal.
- Assistance available to all communities upon request to local public development agencies.
e. Treatment: MDA with praziquantel
- Posters
- Flipcharts
- Videos
- Village committees organised.
- Labour for infrastructure.
- Provision of local building materials (e.g., sand).
Hurlimann et al., 2018 [64] Cote D’Ivoire Rural: communities Aug. 2011—Aug. 2012 General population S. mansoni and haematobium - Transmission Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) [65] - Planning:
- Workshop with local leaders on the intervention to foster buy-in.
- Local health authorities, town-hall officials, health and demographic surveillance officers and other stakeholders trained on CLTS.
- Village meetings with participatory assessment of sanitation conditions and mapping of faecal contamination (trigger disgust).
- Villagers design and agree on plans to become open-defaecation free (ODF).
- Public event to present action plans.
- Technical assistance: Trained facilitators assisted and monitored latrine building.
- Infrastructure: Latrine building.
- Health education:
- Participatory exercises assessed knowledge and education needs.
- Meetings to discuss and inform about the disease and risk practices.
- Treatment: MDA with albendazole, praziquantel and ivermectin.
- Booklets b
- Posters b
- Pictures b
- Examination and mapping of open defaecation problems.
- Outline of prevention measures and timelines.
- Assessment of education needs and plans for education activities.
- Labour for latrine building.
- Local leaders led implementation.
Madon et al., 2018 [66] Tanzania Rural: communities Nov. 2015 –Ap. 2016 General population S. mansoni and haematobium - Transmission Enhanced Development Governance (ad-hoc framework) - Organisational support: Expanded membership to social services committees (SSCs), incorporating village council members, health workers, community bank, youth & religious groups, teachers, and drug distributors.
- Financial support: Start-up funds and training for income-generating activities and NTD / sanitation initiatives: cleaning schools, clearing garbage, building wells and latrines.
- Health education:
- NTD-WASH education through lectures and discussions.
- Health education sessions held in individual households and public spaces.
- Technical support: Training on design and management of NTD projects.
N.R. - Village council members identified new SSC members.
- SSCs organised monthly village clean-up operations.
- SSCs agreed on penalties to ensure compliance with sanitation standards.
Mwanga et al., 2013 [67] Tanzania Rural: communities d 2008 a General population S. mansoni - Exposure.
- Treatment seeking
Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) [68,69] - Health education: Trained community facilitators organised meetings with up to 24 adults to discuss risk practices and transmission in the community.
- Planning: Villagers outlined community objectives, plans of action, goals, and monitoring activities.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel.
N.R. - Participatory diagnosis
- Participatory planning
- Participatory monitoring and evaluation e
Mwanga et al., 2015 [70] Tanzania Rural: communities d 2009a General population S. mansoni - Exposure. Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) [68,69] - Health education: Village meetings discussed risk practices and transmission in the community context.
- Planning: Villagers outlined community objectives and plans of action.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel and Albendazole.
- Infrastructure: Pumped well.
N.R. - Participatory diagnosis
- Participatory planning
- Participatory monitoring and evaluation e
Person et al., 2021 [71]
Knopp et al., 2019 [72]
Tanzania Rural and Urban: schools 2011–2017a Children (9–12) S. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
- Treatment uptake
Human-Centred Design [73] - Health education:
- Classroom based teaching with interactive materials and activities.
- Public ‘Kichocho day’ events including dramas, poems, and safe games with participation of the general population.
- Village meetings with educational films.
- Infrastructure: Urinals and washing platforms built following residents’ inputs.
- Treatment: Biannual MDAs with praziquantel.
- lipchart with pictures of transmission sites, snails, risk activities, and treatment b
- Blood fluke pictures b
- Snail boards b
- Drawings of lifecycle b
- Teachers co-designed education materials, games, and plays.
- Residents selected and co-designed BC strategies.
- Residents co-designed and built urinals and washing platforms.
Rassi et al., 2019 [74] Mozambique Rural and Urban: communities Aug. 2014—Sep 2015, General population S. haematobium - Exposure
- Transmission
- Treatment uptake.
Community Dialogue Approach(75) - Health education:
- Training for volunteers on the disease, prevention, and facilitation.
- Volunteers led community meetings (n = 1,500).
- Meetings informed on causes, transmission, and prevention.
- Planning: Residents proposed and agreed on locally-led control measures, including commitments to treatment uptake, exposure reduction, and sanitation initiatives.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel
- lipchart illustrating intervention b - Local volunteers organised community dialogue events.
- Participatory design of solutions and measures to promote control activities.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL INTERVENTIONS
El Kholy et al., 1989 [76] Kenya Rural: villages 1984–1985 General population S. haematobium - Exposure N.R. a. Infrastructure: Boreholes built,
b. Treatment: MDA with praziquantel for SAC
Not Applicable (N.A.) N.R.
Freeman et al., 2013 [77] Kenya Schools f May 2007—Nov. 2008 Schoolchildren (7–13). S. mansoni - Exposure
- Transmission: latrine use.
N.R. - Training: One parent and one teacher per school trained on health, hygiene, and maintenance of infrastructure.
- Infrastructure: Latrines built according to school size (4–7 / school).
- Equipment: Provision of hand washing and drinking water containers.
- Technical support: One-year supply of point-of-use water treatment product.
- Treatment: MDA with Albendazole and targeted treatment with praziquantel.
N.R. No.
Kosinski, et al., 2016 [78] Ghana Rural: communities Jun. 2008-Ag. 2010 Schoolchildren (8–22) S. haematobium - Exposure: water-contact. N.R.
- Infrastructure: 30 m2 concrete pool fed by rainwater and pumped groundwater.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel.
N.A. No
Noda et al., 1997 [79] Kenya Rural: village Feb. 1984 General population S. haematobium - Exposure: water-contact. N.R. - Infrastructure:
- One free of charge shower unit with five rooms
- Five community standpipes installed, payment per bucket
N.A. - Water committees maintained infrastructure.
Wepne et al., 2019 [80] Cameroon Rural: village 2014–2017a Adults: pregnant women S. haematobium - Exposure: water-contact. N.R. - Infrastructure: Installed community piped water, immediate payment upon use. N.A. No
INCENTIVES CENTRED INTERVENTIONS
Fink & Rockers, 2017 [81] Zambia Urban and Rural: communities July 2011 Early school aged children (6–7) N. R. - Treatment seeking / uptake: bring children to health centre. Conditional cash transfer - Financial support: Offers of cash payments if children brought to a health centre for check-up within 7 days. N.A. No
Muhumuza et al., 2014 [82] Uganda Rural: schools May–July 2013 Schoolchildren (7–16) S. mansoni - Treatment seeking / uptake: MDA uptake. N. R. - Health education: 30-minute classes by trained teachers for two months to control and intervention groups.
- Pre-treatment snacks: mango juice and doughnuts given prior drug distribution.
- Treatment: MDA with praziquantel.
N.R. No

a. No further details provided

b. Source material not referenced or reproduced

c. Videos available online: animated video, video-documentary

d. Study sites in different regions for publications by the same author

e. Items obtained from framework guidelines

f. Rurality not reported