TABLE 2.
List of anti-inflammatory phytochemicals used in pre-clinical trials.
| Class | Phytochemicals | Botanical name (family) | Molecular targets | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flavones | Apigenin | Chamaemelum nobile (Asteraceae) | NF-κB and STAT 1 Signalling pathways, expression of miR-155, activation of PPAR-γ | Nicholas et al. (2007), Arango et al. (2015), Feng et al. (2016) |
| Luteolin | Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) | JNK, NF-κB p65 Signalling pathways | Ando et al. (2009), Xiong et al. (2017) | |
| Baicalin and Baicalein | Scutellaria baicalensis (Lamiaceae) | Fizz1 expression, CHOP/STAT pathway | Kim et al. (2018), Zhu et al. (2016) | |
| Flavonols | Quercetin | Malus domestica (Rosaceae) | NF-κB p65, ERK, JNK and STAT pathways, AKT Signalling modulation | Bian et al. (2018), Maurya and Vinayak, (2017) |
| Kaempferol | Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) | NF-κB, STAT, and JNK Signalling pathways | Bian et al. (2019), Park et al. (2015) | |
| Flavanone | Naringenin | Citrus paradise (Rutaceae) | NF-κB activation, NF-kB/IL-6/STAT-3 pathways, NO-cGMP-PKG KATP channel Signalling | Pinho-Ribeiro et al. (2016), Zhang et al. (2018b), Manchope et al., (2016) |
| Hesperidin | Citrus limon (Rutaceae) | expression of p65, Foxo1, Foxo3, and Nrf2 Signalling pathways | Xiao et al. (2018), Tsai et al. (2019) | |
| Isoflavones | Genistein | Genista tinctorial (Fabaceae) | NF-κB/Akt Signalling pathway, AMPK activation, expression of p65 | Howes and Simmonds (2014), Lee et al. (2019), Yuan et al. (2019) |
| Puerarin | Pueraria lobate (Fabaceae) | NF-κB activation, Fizz1 expression, Nrf2 regulation | Liu et al. (2014a), Nguyen Ngo Le et al. (2019), Jeon et al. (2020) | |
| Catechins | Epigallocatechin gallate | Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) | Suppression of neuronal apoptosis, NF-κB/p65/IκB-α Signalling pathway | Cai et al. (2014) |
| Anthocyanidins | Cyanidin-3-O-glycoside | Lonicera caerulea (Caprifoliaceae) | MAPK and NF-κB Signalling pathway, regulation of iNOS and COX-2 expression | Wu et al. (2017), Pereira, Almeida, and Dinis (2018) |
| Monoterpenes | Cineole | Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae) | PPAR-γ dependent modulation of NF-κB, PRR pathways, NF-κB/MAPKs/MKP-1 Signalling pathways | Linghu et al. (2019), Yadav and Chandra (2017) |
| Paeoniflorin | Paeonia lactiflora (Paeoniaceae) | Nrf2/HO-1 Signalling pathways, MAPK pathway, ERK1/2 and Akt regulation, NF-κB/p65/IκBα signalling pathways | Wu et al. (2019), Yu et al., (2017), Gong et al. (2015), Yu et al. (2019) | |
| Sesquiterpenes | Parthenolide | Tanacetum parthenium (Asteraceae) | NF-κB and MAPKs signalling pathways Nrf2/Keap1 signalling pathway | Kim et al. (2019), Li et al. (2015) |
| Zerumbone | Zingiber zerumbet (Zingiberaceae) | NF-κB/HO-1 signalling pathway, NF-κB/MAPK/PI3K-Akt signalling pathways | Kim et al. (2009), Haque et al., (2018) | |
| Diterpenoids | Ginkgolides | Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) | Regulation of Caspase-1/NF-κB P65 expression, CD40-NF-κB signal pathway | Chen et al. 2018b), Zhang et al. (2018) |
| Triterpenoids | Ursolic acid | Glechoma hederacea (Lamiaceae) | NF-κB/p65 signalling pathway | Zhao et al. (2018) |
| Escin | Aesculus hippocastanum, (Sapindaceae) | mRNA expression of NF-κB/reduction of TNF-α, P-selectin, and VCAM-1 | Wang et al., (2014), Zhao et al. (2018) | |
| Withaferin A | Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) | IKKβ/NF-κβ pathway, regulation of LPS/TLR4 pathway | Martorana et al., (2015), Batumalaie et al., (2016) | |
| β –sitosterol | Glycine max (Fabaceae) | SHP-1/NF-κB regulation, NLRP3/caspase-1 signalling pathway | Valerio and Awad (2011), Liao et al., (2018) | |
| Curcuminoids | Curcumin | Curcuma longa, (Zingiberaceae) | TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signalling pathway, PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signalling pathway, NF-κB/PPAR-γ signalling, MAPK/ERK/p38/Akt/NF-κB pathway, HO-1, and Nrf-2 pathway | Zhu et al. (2014), Song et al., (2013), Liu et al., (2016b), Yu et al., (2018) |
| Stilbenes | Resveratrol | Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae) | Modulation of AP-1/NF-κB/COX-2, ICAM-1, iNOS, and IL-1β mRNA expression, VEGF/p38-MAPK/NF-κB pathway | Latruffe et al., (2015), Huang et al., (2017), Yan et al., (2018) |
| Phenolic acids | Rosmarinic acid | Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) | NF-κB and p65 expression, NF-κB/p65/pSTAT3 pathway | Cao et al., (2016), Jin et al., (2017) |
| Ellagic acid | Punica granatum (Lythraceae) | expression of RANTES protein, IRAK4/TRAF-6/IKK-β/NF-κB/p65 expressions | (Promsong et al., (2015), Zhou et al., 2019) | |
| Gallic acid | Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) | TLR-4/NF-κB/PPARγ signalling pathway | Fan et al. (2018) | |
| Protocatechuic acid | Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae) | SIRT1/NF-κB signalling pathway PI3K/Akt-mediated nuclear-factor-κB activation, STAT-6/PPAR-γ pathway | Kaewmool et al. (2020) | |
| Vanillic acid | Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae) | Nrf2/HO-1 expression | Calixto-Campos et al. (2015) | |
| 6-gingerol | Zingiber officinale Rosc. (Zingiberaceae) | PI3K and p-Akt expression, RANKL/PGE2 expressions | Xu et al. (2018b), Hwang et al. (2018) | |
| Caffeic acid phenethyl ester | Populus nigra L. (Salicaceae) | NF-κB/p65 signalling pathway, Nrf2/HO-1 signalling pathway | Takakura et al. (2018) |