Table 1.
Maternal characteristics overall and by GDM status among pregnant women in Lima, Peru (N=527).
| Characteristics | All women (N= 527) n(%) |
Controls (N=405) n(%) |
GDM cases (N=122) n(%) |
P |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age (years) a | 29.5 (6.2) | 29.2 (6.0) | 30.4 (6.7) | 0.077 |
| Maternal ethnicity | ||||
| Mestizo | 522 (99) | 400 (99) | 121 (99) | > 0.9 |
| No-Mestizo | 6 (1.1) | 5 (1.3) | 1 (0.8) | |
| Gestational week a | 25.6 (1.3) | 25.5 (1.3) | 25.7 (1.3) | 0.2 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) a | 25.9 (4.2) | 25.9 (4.2) | 25.7 (4.2) | 0.3 |
| Parity | ||||
| Primiparous | 162 (31) | 129 (32) | 33 (27) | 0.3 |
| Multiparous | 365 (69) | 276 (68) | 89 (73) | |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married/living with partner | 453 (86) | 348 (86) | 105 (86) | > 0.9 |
| Single/divorced | 74 (14) | 57 (14) | 17 (14) | |
| Employment, yes % | 181 (34) | 144 (36) | 37 (30) | 0.3 |
| Education (years) | ||||
| ≤6 | 12 (2.3) | 10 (2.5) | 2.0 (1.6) | > 0.9 |
| 7-12 | 279 (53) | 215 (53) | 64 (52) | |
| >12 | 236 (45) | 180 (44) | 56 (46) | |
| Smoking in pregnancy, yes % | 2.0 (0.4) | 1.0 (0.2) | 1 (0.8) | 0.4 |
| Alcohol use in pregnancy, yes % | 11 (2.1) | 8.0 (2.0) | 3.0 (2.5) | 0.7 |
| HCC I (mid-pregnancy) (pg/mg) | 4.8 (3.4) | 4.8 (3.5) | 5.0 (3.4) | 0.6 |
| HCC II (early-pregnancy) (pg/mg) | 3.7 (3.5) | 3.7 (3.5) | 3.9 (3.4) | 0.2 |
| Hair color | ||||
| Black | 396 (82) | 339 (84) | 57 (72) | 0.003 |
| Brown | 86 (18) | 66 (16) | 20 (25) | |
| Other | 2.0 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (2.5) | |
| Natural hair structure | ||||
| Curly | 25 (5.2) | 20 (4.9) | 5.0 (6.3) | 0.6 |
| Straight | 459 (95) | 385 (95) | 74 (94) | |
| Hair tinting, yes % | 194 (40) | 158 (39) | 36 (46) | 0.3 |
| Hair dyeing, yes % | 5.0 (1) | 5 (1.2) | 0 (0) | > 0.9 |
| Food insecurity, yes % | 360 (68) | 276 (68) | 84 (69) | 0.9 |
| Perceived health in pregnancy | ||||
| Good | 269 (51) | 209 (52) | 60 (49) | 0.6 |
| Poor | 258 (49) | 196 (48) | 62 (51) | |
| Child sex | ||||
| Female | 215 (44) | 156 (42) | 59 (50) | 0.09 |
| Male | 277 (56) | 219 (58) | 59 (50) | |
| Family history of Diabetes, yes % | 210 (42) | 157 (41) | 53 (45) | 0.4 |
| Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL) a | 84.0 (9.3) | 80.5 (6.7) | 95.5 (7.3) | <0.001 |
| Glucose-1h (mg/dL) a | 134.7 (22.9) | 129.5 (19.4) | 151.8 (25.2) | <0.001 |
| Glucose-2h (mg/dL) a | 103.6 (20.7) | 99.1 (17.0) | 118.7 (24.6) | <0.001 |
| Fasting insulin (μIU/mL) a | 5.3 (4.5) | 4.7 (4.0) | 6.7 (5.1) | <0.001 |
| HOMA-IR a | 1.1 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.8) | 1.6 (1.2) | <0.001 |
| HOMA-B a | 98.2 (92.5) | 107.8 (102.9) | 77.1 (59.1) | <0.001 |
a
Continuous variables were summarized using mean (SD). BMI: body mass index, HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance, HOMA-B: homeostasis model assessment for β-cell function. P-value comparing maternal characteristics by GDM status was calculated using a Wilcoxon rank sum test for continuous non-parametric variables, and the Fisher's exact test or Pearson's Chi-squared test for categorical variables.