Table 3.
Recent studies of P. macrocarpa employing conventional and modern extraction techniques to obtain bioactive extracts and compounds.
| No. | Extraction method | Solvent | Plant part/ compound | Extraction condition | Yield result or biological assay | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conventional | ||||||
| 1 | Maceration | Ethanol | Fruits | 2.5 kg of P. macrocarpa fruits were soaked in 30 L of 96% ethanol for 120 h (5 days), then filtered to obtain flavonoid-rich filtrate | The flavonoid-rich extract suppressed the growth of endometriosis lesions through normalisation of proliferation and apoptosis | (Maharani et al., 2021) |
| 2 | Reflux | Methanol | Pericarps, mesocarps, and seeds | Each part of P. macrocarpa fruit (0.5 g) was added with 40 ml of solvent, followed by 10 ml and 6 M HCl solution, attached to reflux, heated for 2 h at 90 °C, and then filtered | The pericarps and mesocarps inhibited inducible nitric oxide synthesis at 63.4 ± 2.7% and 69.5 ± 1.4%, respectively, in macrophage RAW 264.7 cell lines, indicating their potential for anti-inflammatory activity | (Hendra et al., 2011) |
| 3 | Soxhlet | Ethyl acetate | Fruits | P. macrocarpa fruit (0.5 g) was added with 40 ml of solvent, followed by 10 ml and 6 M HCl solution, heated for 2 h at 90 °C using soxhlet extractor, and then filtered | The pericarps showed higher DPPH antioxidant activity (IC50 = 122.4 ± 1.14 µg/ml) compared to mesocarps (IC50 = 175.48 ± 1.75 µg/ml). | (Hendra and Haryani, 2018) |
| Modern | ||||||
| 4 | SFE | Supercritical carbon dioxide | Seed oil | Optimised conditions were used: temperature of 72 °C, a pressure of 42 MPa, and a CO2 flow rate of 4.5 ml/min | 52.9 g of oil yield per 100 g of dry sample and 0.99 of coefficient of determination (R2) were obtained. The amount of oleic acid (18:1) was found to be highest (43.56%) among all the fatty acids. The total unsaturated fatty acid and saturated fatty acid were obtained as 73.62% and 26.38%, respectively in the P. macrocarpa seed oil. | (Azmir et al., 2014) |
| 5 | SFE | Supercritical carbon dioxide | Mangiferin | The extraction conditions were set at 40 MPa, 353 K, and a CO2 flow rate of 41 g/min | No yield of mangiferin was obtained | (Kim et al., 2010) |
| 6 | PLE | Subcritical water | Mangiferin | 2.5 g of P. macrocarpa sample of 25 g was mixed with 1 L of distilled water, poured into the extraction reactor with a 6-hour extraction time and an optimum temperature of 105 °C. | 38.7 mg/g yield of mangiferin was obtained | (Alara et al., 2017) |
| 7 | PLE | Subcritical water | Mangiferin | The optimal condition was achieved at 373 K, 4.0 MPa, 100 °C of temperature and 5 h of extraction time | 21.7 mg/g of extraction yield of mangiferin was obtained, which was close to the extraction yield with methanol (25.0 mg/g) and higher than those with water (18.6 mg/g) or ethanol (13.2 mg/g) at their boiling points. | (Kim et al., 2010) |
| 8 | MAE | Water | Fruit peels | The best condition was achieved at 1 min, 80 °C and 300 W. | The highest amount of antioxidant activity and TPC yield were observed at 61.15 ± 0.93% and 102.60 ± 1.17 mg GAE/g dry weight, respectively | (Alara et al., 2019) |
| 9 | MAE | Ethanol | Fruit pulp | Optimum extraction was achieved with 65% ethanol, in 1 min under 30% microwave power, and a 1:12 sample solvent ratio. | Optimum extraction yielded a TPC and antioxidant activity of 62.79 ± 0.74 mg GAE/g powder and 30.48 ± 0.32%, respectively. MAE showed better selectivity in extracting polar compounds compared to the conventional methods | (Handayani et al., 2020) |
| 10 | IL-MAE | [BMIM]BF4 | Fruit pulp | Optimum extraction parameters were used: 10% microwave power, 2.5 M [BMIM]BF4 as a solvent, 0.01 M KH2PO4 as a salt solution, 2.5 min extraction time, and a solvent to sample ratio of 17.5:1 | A TPC value of 191.72 ± 1.27 mg GAE/g powder, and radical-scavenging activity of 12.1 ± 0.003% using DPPH were acquired | (Handayani et al., 2021) |
| 11 | UAE-NADES | Choline chloride NADES | Fruit pulp | Optimum extraction parameters for P. macrocarpa incorporated choline chloride to a lactic acid ratio of 1:4 with 50% water at 20 min | The extract showed 65.25 mg GAE/g powder of TPC and antioxidant activity of 26.45 ± 0.02% | (Handayani et al., 2020) |
[BMIM]BF4- 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate; CO2-Carbon dioxide; DPPH-1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; GAE-Gallic acid equivalent; HCl-Hydrochloric acid; IC50-Inhibition concentration at 50%; IL-MAE- Ionic liquid-microwave-assisted extraction; KH2PO4-Potassium dihydrogen phosphate; MAE- Microwave-assisted extraction; PLE- Pressurized liquid extraction; SFE- Supercritical fluid extraction; TPC-Total phenolic content; UAE-NADES- Natural deep eutectic solvent-ultrasonic-assisted extraction.