Table 3.
Dysfunctions associated to the risk posed by exposure to PM2.5 to different physiological systems, in experimental and epidemiological studies
| PM2.5 and damage to the respiratory system | |
|---|---|
| (Jung et al., 2019; Tian et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2018) | Asthma exacerbation |
| (Gharibvand et al., 2017; Nielsen et al., 2016; Tomczak et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2020) | Risk of developing lung cancer |
| (Liu et al., 2017a, 2017b) | Risk of developing the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
| (Croft et al., 2019; Lv et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2017) | Risk of developing pneumonia |
| (Wang et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2017c) | Reduction in epithelial integrity biomarker activity |
| (Wu et al., 2021) | Changes in the oral mucosal microbiota |
| (Zhao et al., 2018) | Bronchial epithelial losses, smooth muscle hyperplasia, increased inflammatory infiltrate, and altered Bax-Bcl levels |
| (Sun et al., 2017) | Increased neutrophil count and neutrophil penetration in peribronchiolar regions |
| (Yoshizaki et al., 2017) | Elevation of IL-8Rα and IL-1β, COX-2, TGF-α aand high levels of isoprostane and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9) |
| (Xu et al., 2019) | Risk of developing lung fibrosis |
| PM2.5 and damage to the cardiovascular system | |
| (Folino et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2020) | Arrhythmias |
| (Gallo et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2019) | Fibrillation |
| (Cao et al., 2021; Honda et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018) | Hypertension |
| (Chen et al., 2017b; Tsou et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2018) | Heart rate Variation |
| (Li et al., 2021; Lozano-Sabido et al., 2021) | Miocardyal infarct |
| (Wan et al., 2019) | Atherosclerosis |
| (Dai et al., 2017) | Endothelial dysfunction |
| (Ribeiro et al., 2016; Yue et al., 2019) | Histological changes |
| PM2.5 and nervous system damage | |
| (Younan et al., 2020) | Declines in episodic memory |
| (Jang et al., 2018; Kioumourtzoglou et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018) | Risk of developing Alzheimer's disease |
| (Kioumourtzoglou et al., 2016) | Parkinson's disease association |
| (Nephew et al., 2020) | Anxiety and low cognition |
| (Kang et al., 2021) | Neurodegeneration |
| (Mortamais et al., 2019; Nephew et al., 2020) | Behavioral changes |
| (Wei et al., 2016) | Autism risk |
| (Kang et al., 2021) | Dementia association |
| PM2.5 and damage to the renal system | |
| (Blum et al., 202; Bo et al., 2021; Bragg-Gresham et al., 2018; Chan et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021;) | Risk of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) |
| (Bowe et al., 2018) | Risk of end-stage renal disease |
| (Hsu et al., 2019; Mehta et al., 2016; Tavera Busso et al., 2018) | glomerular filtration rate changes |
| (Aztatzi-Aguilar et al., 2016; Hsu et al., 2019; Tavera Busso et al., 2018) | Histological changes |
| PM2.5 and damage to the gastrointestinal system | |
| (Feng et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021) | Changes in the intestinal microbiota |
| (Guo et al., 2020; Weinmayr et al., 2018; Wong et al., 2016) | Risk of gastrintestinal cancer |
| (Pan et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016; Weinmayr et al., 2018) | Liver cancer risk |
| (Shi et al., 2019) | Metabolism changes (tricarboxylic acid, urea cycle and purine levels) |
| PM2.5 and damage to the reproductive system | |
| (Kingsley et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2016b; Soto et al., 2017; Ye et a., 2018) | Placental changes |
| (Guo et al., 2021) | Decrease in anti-Müllerian hormone level and increased oocytes degeneration rate; |
| (Kingsley et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2016b; Percy et al., 2019) | Size gestational variation |