Fig. 1.

Hierarchical encapsulation of microorganisms in biofilm-like heterogenous hydrogel. Schematic representation of bacteria encapsulation based on alginate core–shell structure (top left) and hierarchical encapsulation (top right) for multilayered communication. The alginate-based core–shell platform enables the development of biofilm-like stratified habitats within hierarchical multi-layered structures. The small ecological systems in a hydrogel environment act to serve as independent microbial modulators with direct or indirect activation of a response regulator by stimuli, including signaling molecules. Three representative models ( i.e., bead-to-bead interaction, stratified communication, and bacteria-mammalian cell interaction system) are presented by encapsulating specific microorganisms.