Table 1.

The driving forces of zoonotic disease emergence and their main impacts.

Driving Forces	Main Impacts	References
Urbanization	▪Modification and loss of habitats lead to animals infiltrating further into urban areas ▪Lowers biodiversity which can allow vectors to dominate areas ▪Higher risk of parasitic contamination or transmission	[7,8,10,14,15,18,21]
Tourism and Zoos	▪Exotic animals previously not in contact with humans are now directly exposed to or interacting with humans ▪Animals normally in high canopy locations suddenly at ground level near humans ▪Petting zoos and social media promote petting, touching, feeding, and taking selfies with animals	[25,26,53,55,56]
Climate Change	▪Increased number of vectors, and vector reproduction and activity ▪Loss of habitats and preferred climates lead to more vectors entering human housing ▪Switching of hosts due to changes in migratory patterns	[82,83,89,90,95]
Deforestation	▪Loss of biodiversity allows for pathogens to overshadow areas ▪Ecological landscape disruption removes habitat layers of forest and encourages animal migration towards urban developments ▪Loss of canopy layer of the forest removes protection from sun and rainfall, causing soil erosion ponds that breed vectors ▪Higher potential for zoonotic spillover	[33,44,45,47,48,51]
Wildlife Exploitation and Trade	▪Increased human–animal contact ▪Pathogens can switch hosts during transportation ▪Risk of cross-species animal–animal transmission	[58,61,64,66]