Table 2.
Applications of hydrocolloids in plant-based meat alternatives.
| Hydrocolloid | Applications | Approach | Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Konjac glucomannan | Fermented soybean patty | Addition 0, 2, 4 and 6% w/w konjac glucomannan in fermented soybean patty | Konjac improved overall the textural and, potentially, eating quality and moisture retention of fermented soybean patty. The addition of konjac strengthened the protein–protein network. The meat alternatives with the incorporation of 6% konjac was the most cohesive among all samples, which was closer to the cohesiveness of the meat patty. |
[77] |
| κ-carrageenan, konjac mannan, xanthan gum | Soy-protein-isolate sausage | Supplementation of κ-carrageenan, konjac mannan and xanthan gum at concentrations of 0.3%, 0.6%, 1.0%, and 1.5% was applied to a soy-protein-isolate sausage | The application of 0.3–0.6% kappa-carrageenan or 0.6% konjac mannan yielded the most favourable acceptability scores. | [68] |
| Iota-carrageenan | Soy protein meat analogues produced by high-moisture extrusion processing | Addition of iota-carrageenan at 0.75%, 1.5%, 2.25%, 3% to soy protein meat analogues | 1.5% iota-carrageenan was the optimal level for acceptance of texture. |
[69] |
| Xanthan (X), iota-carrageenan (CA), sodium alginate (SA), guar gum (GG), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), low-acyl gellan gum (GZ), low-methylated pectin (P), locust bean gum (LBG) | Pea protein isolate-wheat gluten (PPI-WG) products produced by high-temperature shear cell processing | Addition of different hydrocolloids (X, CA, SA, GG, CMC, GZ, P, LBG) at 1%, 2%, 3% to the PPI-WG mixture | The addition of X at 2 and 3% to PPI-WG improved browning, textural and water-holding properties in the production of fibrous products. | [63] |
| Guar gum (G), κ-carrageenan (C), xanthan gum (X), hydroxypropyl starch (HPS), cross-linked tapioca starch (CLS) | Soy-protein-isolate-based meat analogue produced by twin-screw extruder | Gluten substituted with G, C, X, HPS, or CLS at concentrations ranging from 1–7% (w/w) in the control recipe | The mixtures of 6% C + 1% X and 6% G + 1% X can be used for substituting gluten in a soy-protein-based meat analogue. | [78] |
| Carrageenan (CA), sodium alginate (SA), wheat starch (WS) | Peanut protein powder (PPP) meat alternative processed by high-moisture extrusion | Addition of CA/SA at 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1% to the PPP. Addition of WS at 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% to the PPP | Overall, 0.1% CA could improve the tensile resistant force, and 0.1% SA could improve the fibrous degree. Increasing the WS content (0–8%) resulted in a lower fibrous degree and a significant reduction in both hardness and chewiness. | [79] |
| Kappa- and iota-carrageenan (CG), sodium alginate (SA), glucomannan (GM) | Meat analogues produced by three-dimensional food printing | Insertion of hydrocolloid-based fibres prepared in 2.5–5% solutions with different formulations of CG, SA, and GM into the protein matrix | When subjected to heat treatment, the combination of 1.5% CG and 1.5% GM, as well as 2.5% CG and 1.5% GM, formed a highly robust and stable gel with an elastic strength similar to that of beef. | [80] |