Table 3.

Ingredients used in the development of clean-label meat products.

Ingredient	Inclusion Level	Meat Product	Impact on Product	Contribution	Reference
Inulin, pectin	15% inulin, 30% inulin, 7.5% inulin and 7.5% pectin, 15% inulin and 15% pectin	Frankfurter sausage	Fat can be replaced with inulin and pectin in frankfurter sausages. The addition of 15% inulin increased the sensory acceptance of the sausages.	Fat reduction/replacement	[42]
Wheat sprout	0%, 1%, and 2% buckwheat spout powder	Chicken patty	By incorporating 2% wheat sprout dietary fibre, the fat content in chicken patties can be reduced to 15% while maintaining the quality and sensory characteristics of patties containing 20% fat.	Fat reduction/replacement	[104]
Chia mucilage	15%, 20%, and 25% chia mucilage gels were applied in two levels (2.5% and 5%)	Emulsified meat model system	The addition of chia mucilage gel enhanced the stability of the meat emulsion. Formulations with 5% chia mucilage increased hardness, and decreased elasticity and cohesiveness values compared to the control with 20% fat.	Fat reduction/replacement	[49]
Inulin, cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), chitosan, pectin	2%	Pork meat model system	Fibre enrichment resulted in lower cooking loss and improved water-holding capacity. Chitosan impacted the heating-induced changes in water distribution. CMC exhibited a superior ability in mitigating the effect of heat-induced protein denaturation on water expulsion than the other fibre types.	Fat reduction/replacement	[45]
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)	0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5 and 2 wt.%	Standard-fat Lyoner sausages	MCC displayed exceptional compatibility with the matrix and improved firmness with increasing concentration compared to control. The addition of CMC (>0.7%) led to the destabilization of the batter, resulting in its inability to form a cohesive protein network upon heating.	Texture	[105]
Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus) flours	2.5%, 5%	Beef patty	The addition of 2.5% mushroom flour from Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus enriched the fibre content and reduced the fact content by 25% and the salt content by 50%.	Salt and fat reduction/replacement	[81]
Sea spaghetti/konjac gel	3.3 g/100 g; 10.5 and 19.3 g/100 g	Frankfurtersausage	Konjac gel can be used to replace pork back-fat (reducing over 15% fat content) without significant changes in the sensory quality of frankfurters. The addition of a sea spaghetti/konjac gel (accompanied by reduction in salt) combination resulted in a more heterogeneous meat protein matrix with the seaweed integrated into the structure.	Salt and fat reduction/replacement	[85]
Plum powder and plum fibre marinade	0.06%	Chicken breast	The combination of plum powder and plum fibre marinade was found to have similar sensory and quality characteristics when compared to sodium tripoly-phosphate in boneless and skinless chicken breast fillets.	Phosphate reduction/replacement	[86]
Natural calcium powders fromegg and oyster	0.2%, 0.3%, 0.5%	Ground pork meat product	The combination of 0.2% oyster shell calcium and 0.3% eggshell calcium should enable the replacement of synthetic phosphate in the pork products with desirable properties.	Phosphate reduction/replacement	[106]
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) EO, Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia) EO	5% and 10%; 2.5% and 5%	Ground beef	The addition of 10% clove could completely inactivate L. monocytogenes in ground beef within 3 days post inoculation, irrespective of storage temperature. The addition of 5% cinnamon EOs could reduce 3.5–4.0 log CFU/g of L. monocytogenes after 7 days at 0 and 8 °C and after 60 days at −18 °C.	Antimicrobial functionality	[107]
Fresh plum juice concentrate (FP), dried plum juice concentrate (DP), spray dried plum powder (PP)	2.5%, 5%	Boneless ham	No significant differences in lipid oxidation among treatments. DP could contribute to a desirable red hue, therefore enhancing the colour and its stability in meat products.	Antioxidant functionality	[98]
Organic hydroxytyrosol (HXTo, 7% purity from olive tree leaves), synthetic hydroxytyrosol (HXTs, 99% purity), natural rosemary extracts (14.6% carnosic acid and 6% carnosol)	200 ppm	Lamb burger	HXT extracts and rosemary extract showed a good preservation activity, even higher than the control sample made with sulphites and synthetic antioxidants. The antioxidant activity (in vitro) of HXT extracts was found to be significantly higher than that of rosemary extracts.	Antioxidant functionality	[108]