. 2023 May 12;20(10):5798. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20105798

Table 5.

Multivariate models of factors associated with diabetes mellitus type 2 among Black South African youth and adults 15 years and older, South Africa 2012 (n = 3042).

Diabetes	Model 1: Demographic Variables			Model 2: Model 1 + SES Variables			Model 3: Model 2 + Kessler 10			Model 4: Model 3 + Stressors *			Model 5: Model 4 + Risk Factors *
Predictors	OR	S.E.	p	OR	S.E.	p	OR	S.E.	p	OR	S.E.	p	OR	S.E.	p
Geotype
Urban Formal	Ref			ref			ref			ref			ref
Urban Informal	0.650	0.198	0.159	0.882	0.289	0.701	0.915	0.297	0.784	1.066	0.327	0.835	1.142	0.376	0.687
Rural Informal (Tribal)	0.935	0.404	0.876	1.312	0.566	0.530	1.392	0.602	0.445	1.608	0.723	0.292	1.588	0.760	0.334
Rural Formal (Farms)	0.663	0.313	0.385	0.933	0.483	0.894	0.971	0.516	0.957	1.286	0.711	0.650	1.452	0.800	0.499
Sex
Female	Ref			ref			ref			ref			ref
Male	1.061	0.350	0.858	1.041	0.331	0.899	1.055	0.339	0.868	0.910	0.237	0.717	1.819	0.570	0.057
Age in years	1.049	0.010	<0.001	1.055	0.008	<0.001	1.053	0.008	<0.001	1.054	0.008	<0.001	1.050	0.007	<0.001
Educational status
No formal Schooling/Grade 0–7				ref			ref			ref			ref
Grade 8–12 (or Equivalent)				1.280	0.384	0.412	1.357	0.425	0.331	1.220	0.360	0.501	1.186	0.352	0.567
Higher Education				0.442	0.317	0.257	0.486	0.327	0.285	0.439	0.270	0.183	0.449	0.236	0.128
Household income in Rands
<5000				ref			ref			ref			ref
≥5000 < 10,000				0.727	0.261	0.375	0.727	0.263	0.379	0.770	0.244	0.411	0.725	0.227	0.304
≥10,000 < 25,000				1.120	0.379	0.738	1.115	0.384	0.751	1.044	0.382	0.907	0.998	0.360	0.995
≥25,000 < 50,000				0.892	0.420	0.808	0.863	0.419	0.762	0.777	0.370	0.597	0.696	0.375	0.502
≥50,000				2.164	1.415	0.239	2.159	1.395	0.235	1.904	1.111	0.271	1.433	0.721	0.475
Asset-Based Wealth Index
Quintile 1 (Lowest SES)				ref			ref			ref			ref
Quintile 2 (Lower SES)				1.749	1.088	0.370	1.818	1.139	0.341	1.605	0.966	0.432	1.467	0.920	0.542
Quintile 3 (Middle SES)				1.428	0.909	0.577	1.473	0.944	0.546	1.360	0.837	0.618	1.198	0.784	0.782
Quintile 4 (Higher SES)				1.560	0.962	0.471	1.623	1.006	0.435	1.484	0.906	0.518	1.198	0.806	0.789
Quintile 5 (Highest SES)				2.510	1.727	0.182	2.688	1.876	0.158	2.543	1.745	0.175	1.786	1.276	0.418
Kessler10 Score							1.038	0.018	0.031	1.047	0.020	0.014	1.046	0.018	0.010
Stressor indicators
Hunger										0.624	0.187	0.116	0.625	0.204	0.151
Home Alcohol Stress										0.953	0.425	0.915	0.966	0.361	0.925
Crowding										0.507	0.142	0.016	0.501	0.135	0.011
Neighborhood Inaccessibility										0.566	0.208	0.123	0.547	0.205	0.109
Economic Stress										1.157	0.533	0.752	1.292	0.584	0.572
Conflict										0.636	0.163	0.078	0.640	0.157	0.069
Neighborhood Crime and Alcohol										0.869	0.219	0.577	0.797	0.215	0.400
Health Indicators
Family History of Diabetes													1.600	0.396	0.059
Underweight < 18.5 kg/m²													ref
Normal weight 18.5–24.9 kg/m²													1.580	1.097	0.511
Overweight 25–29.9 kg/m²													3.246	2.042	0.062
Obese ≥ 30 kg/m²													7.090	4.572	0.003
Inactive Lifestyle													1.004	0.272	0.988
Low Fruit and Vegetables													1.110	0.297	0.698
High Sugar													1.075	0.381	0.838
High Fat													1.057	0.398	0.882
High Alcohol Use													0.523	0.293	0.249

Bold indicates that the estimate is significant at the 0.05 alpha level. * Model also adjusts for alcohol use in the home.