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Calcium-induced ER stress signaling by UPR. ER stress occurs when misfolded or unfolded proteins accumulate in the ER, disrupting its normal function. The UPR is mediated by three primary ER transmembrane sensors: IRE1, PERK, and ATF6. When activated, these sensors trigger downstream signaling events to help the cell adapt to ER stress. If the stress is too severe or prolonged, the UPR shifts from a pro-survival to a pro-apoptotic response, ultimately leading to cell death.
