Table 2.

Pharmacological effects and mechanisms of AN extract, other mixture compounds and arecoline for several diseases.

Diseases	Pharmacological Effects	AN Components	Mechanism	Biological Materials	References
Gastric and intestine	against gastric cancer cell	15.91 μM 2,4-Compound 26, 20.13 μM Compound 34		BGC-823 cells	[70]
	esophageal sphincter muscle contractions ↑	300 ng/L AN pericarp extracts, 300 nM arecoline		porcine	[71]
Depression and anxiety	antidepression		141 depression-related genes		[72]
	anxiolytic-like activity	10 mg/L arecoline	↑ c-fos, c-jun, egr2 and ym1	zebrafish	[73]
Liver	hepatocellular carcinoma progression ↓	20~30 µg/mL or 20 mg/kg AN extract	↑ autophagy and apoptosis	HepJ5 and Mahlavu cells, nude mice	[74]
Nerve	dopaminergic neuron firing rate ↑	0.2 mg/kg arecoline	↑ dopaminergic	rats	[75]
	synaptic exocytosis at neuromuscular junctions ↑	0.2 mM arecoline	↑ GAR-2/PLCβ pathway	C. elegans.	[76]
	improving cognition, memory and behavioral disorders	arecoline	↑ muscarinic M1 receptors	human	[77]
Bacterial infection	antibacterial effects	1–100 mg/mL AN extracts		S. aureus, E. aerogenes, E. coli, S. enterica	[78]
	against Staphylococcus aureus	1000 mg/kg BW AN extracts		S. aureus, rats	[79]
	against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli	0.975 ± 0.02 μg/mL AN extracts		M. tuberculosis, S. aureus, E. coli.	[80]
	antimicrobial activity of nine Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacteria and yeast	10.3 ± 1.1–40.0 ± 3.0 AN SHDE extract		B. subtilis, E. faecalis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. agalactiae, S. canis, S. pyogenes, Candida albicans	[81]
Skin protection	UVB-induced photoaging ↓	AN procyanidins	↓ COX-2, MMPs	mice	[82]
	tyrosinase and elastase inhibition	295.79 ± 11.97 mg/g dry weight AN extract	↓ Tyrosinase, elastase		[83]
Anthelmintic activity	against the nematode Ascaridia galli	250 mg/mL, 100 mg/mL AN extract		Ascaridia galli, chicken	[84]
	against the fluke Fasciola spp.	10%, 20%, 40% AN extract		Fasciola spp., buffaloes	[85]
Antioxidant	antioxidant	2 mg/mL PAP1b	↓ hydroxyl radicals		[86]
	antioxidant	20 µL AN extract	↓ free radical		[83]
Anti-hypoxia	protecting effects caused by hypoxia	AN polyphenols	↓ free radicals		[87]
Anti-osteoarthritis	suppressed inflammation	1 and 10 mg/kg/day AN ethanol extract	↓ iNOS, COX-2	rats	[88]

↑: Activated, ↓: Inhibited.