Table 3.
Tissue engineering scaffolds of nanocellulose
| Type | Modification | Characteristics | Applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CNCs | Reinforcing filler in PCL/chitosan scaffold | Strength (~ 40 MPa) and stiffness (~ 500–600 MPa) of scaffold matched the properties of target tissue | Tendon and ligament tissue engineering | [138] |
| Reinforcing filler in PLA scaffold | Enhanced mechanical properties and superior osteogenic potential | Bone regeneration | [145] | |
| 3D printed and crosslinked alginate/gelatin/CNC scaffold | Enhanced mineralization efficiency of scaffold containing 1% CNC | Rapid bone regeneration in a rat calvaria critical-sized defects (CCD-1) model | [151] | |
| Reinforcing agent in chitosan, alginate, and hydroxyapatite scaffold | Enhanced porosity, swelling ratio and compressive strength | Bone tissue engineering | [152] | |
| CNFs | Regenerated CNFs and poly(globalide) films formed via layer-by-layer assembly | Supported keratinocyte attachment and proliferation | Skin regeneration | [144] |
| Carboxylated and phosphonated CNFs as reinforcing fillers in gelatin scaffold | Higher mineralization potential | Bone regeneration | [148] | |
| Gelatin, reinforced with TEMPO-CNF and HA nanoparticles, and crosslinked by glutaraldehyde | Enhanced Calvarial osteoblast cell proliferation and differentiation | Bone tissue engineering | [149] | |
| Chitosan and CNF composite hydrogels | Suitable rheological properties for disc restoration | Intervertebral disc tissue regeneration in pig and rabbit spine models | [150] | |
| CNF reinforced gelatin/chitosan composites | Tunable compression modulus (ranging between 10 kPa and 1 MPa), favorable for soft tissue regeneration | Cartilage tissue engineering | [154] |