Impact of mind-mapping technique on EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and willingness to communicate

Abstract

This study sought to investigate the effects of using the mind-mapping technique on Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and willingness to communicate (WTC). To accomplish this, 98 EFL learners were chosen and homogenized through the Oxford Quick Placement test (OQPT) and divided into a control group (CG) (n = 30) and an experimental group (EG) (n = 30). After that, the chosen students were pretested on vocabulary, learning motivation, and WTC. Subsequently, two different instructions were given to the two groups; the mind-mapping instruction was used in the EG and a conventional instruction was used in the CG. Then, a 23-session treatment, a vocabulary post-test (both immediate and delayed) and two questionnaires measuring learning motivation and WTC were given to both groups to assess the effectiveness of the instruction on their vocabulary knowledge, learning motivation, and WTC. The results of the statistical analyses showed that the EG outperformed the CG in terms of gains in vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and WTC. At the end of the study, the implications of the results were discussed.

1. Introduction

Teachers employ a variety of approaches and techniques to help students learn new words. One of these teaching techniques is mind-mapping. This is a technique or concept that demonstrates how the brain can process different concepts and data that are related to each other [1]. As stated by Ref. [2], mind-mapping is a powerful graphical technique that seeks to use the brain to its fullest potential. According to Ref. [3], it is an alternative to linear thinking and a way to uncover the thoughts that the brain has about a particular topic or concept. Mind-mapping is a way of taking notes that is used to record one’s ideas, opinions, and thoughts. As defined by us, a mind-map is a mental representation of a person’s ideas and thoughts that allows them to organize the details and see the bigger picture of a subject [4].

Ref. [5] noted that a mind-map is a visual representation in which sub-topics are depicted as subdivisions of broader topics and the primary topics emanate from a central concept. This graphic tool can be used to investigate ideas, make notes, and generate new ideas. It is a technique that can be employed in all disciplines and levels of proficiency. It can assist students in organizing, prioritizing, and combining course material more efficiently [6].

As stressed by Ref. [6], mind-maps can be seen as an effortless way to express one's thoughts without worrying about the structure. It allows individuals to organize their ideas visually, making it easier to remember the information. Mind-maps are diagrams that display the thoughts, words, and other concepts related to the nucleus, connected by branches. This creates a clear framework around the center of the mind-map, which can be presented in a variety of charts and diagrams. According to Ref. [9], mind-maps are an educational tool that use diagrams to show the connection between one topic or idea and another, linking the central idea to other related ones, helping learners to better comprehend the main points or topics.

In addition to providing facts, mind-maps also illustrate the general structure of a subject and the relative significance of its various components. It encourages students to make associations, think innovatively, and recognize connections they may not have noticed otherwise [2]. According to Ref. [10], mind-maps are successful due to their graphical designs that allow students to recognize the links between ideas and encourages them to classify certain opinions as they progress. As group conversations can help generate ideas and make the activity more enjoyable and entertaining, mind-maps are especially effective when done in groups. Students can expand their ideas and are ideal for group conversations [11].

A number of academics [[12], [13], [14]] have suggested that mind-maps can be very advantageous in aiding English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students to enhance their language acquisition. Mind-mapping may create a more captivating learning atmosphere that promotes memory storage and student enthusiasm by utilizing pictorial and graphical design [15]. Ref. [16] found that mind-map is an imaginative technique for learners to take part in a unique learning style that can both help create a new atmosphere for data processing and extend memory recall of essential topics.

The mind-mapping technique is a beneficial aid for teaching and memorizing vocabulary. As vocabulary is a major factor in communication, learning vocabulary is essential. Without having a good understanding of words, students cannot comprehend others or express their own ideas. Consequently, word knowledge is a fundamental part of English language instruction [17]. To be successful in vocabulary learning, learners must be able to apply both theory and practice. Having a good command of vocabulary is important since it is a key indicator of language proficiency [18]. Just as learning a second language is greatly influenced by vocabulary knowledge, studying any foreign language is hindered by a lack of vocabulary words. Without enough vocabulary knowledge, EFL students may not show the necessary results in their language learning capability and process [19]. According to Ref. [20], vocabulary ignorance significantly impedes EFL learners' capacity to communicate in real life. Therefore, it is expected that EFL students will possess the necessary vocabulary knowledge.

Employing a mind-mapping approach can enhance the willingness to communicate (WTC) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. Ref. [21] defines WTC as “the readiness to initiate a dialogue at a certain time with certain people, using the L2”. Ref. [22] further states that the level of WTC varies depending on the interlocutors, topics, and conversational contexts. For example, in L2 classes, students may raise their hands to speak.

According to Ref. [23], being proficient in the second language is not the only requirement for language learning. It is also important for students to have a desire to communicate in English. Research has demonstrated that the WTC of the learners has an influence on how often they actively communicate in the target language [24]. Consequently, WTC should be seen as the primary goal of language education and as a comprehensive theoretical framework to identify, explain, and anticipate L2 communication behaviors, as stated in Ref. [21].

When presented with the opportunity, WTC in a foreign language takes into consideration the students' wishes to participate in conversations in the second language [21]. They emphasize that speaking habits, as shown by WTC, result in more frequent language use. Consequently, the WTC has attracted the attention of researchers studying second language acquisition. The focus of WTC is on language learning with an emphasis on the advantages of speaking experiences for language learning. The communicative language teaching (CLT) approach, which highlights the significant functions of communication, is pertinent to the WTC construct [25].

Motivation is another variable of this research which is supposed to be influenced positively by mind-mapping technique. According to Ref. [26], motivation is the internal force that initiates, guides, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates cognitive and motor processes that are constantly changing. These motivations allow individuals to select, operationalize, prioritize, and either successfully or unsuccessfully carry out their initial goals and desires. Other definitions of motivation include various internal impulses that encourage action towards achieving objectives [26]. As stated by Ref. [27], motivation is a concept used to determine if difficult tasks are completed successfully or not.

As stated by Ref. [28], motivation is the stimulation to do a job or take part in an activity. Those who are motivated are passionate and eager to complete the tasks, unlike those who are not motivated and lack the enthusiasm and drive to do so. The key elements of motivated individuals are curiosity, interest, and a desire to do things [29]. However, having curiosity alone is not enough to be motivated; it must be sustained. To reach a goal, more time and effort must be put in and the desired outcome must be kept. According to Ref. [30], motivation is composed of a need or expectation, a behavior, a goal, and sometimes various types of feedback.

As indicated by Ref. [31], those who are driven tend to be diligent in their efforts to reach their objectives, remain determined, complete the activities required to do so, have a powerful longing to accomplish their objectives, appreciate the tasks necessary to do so, are persuaded to seek after their objectives, and anticipate whether they will succeed or fail. These individuals show high levels of self-assurance and self-efficacy when they are encountering some level of achievement. They have motivations, which are justifications and clarifications for their activities [32].

Some elements that can affect students' motivation are listed by Ref. [33]. One of these crucial elements is getting good grades; in fact, doing well in class might increase students' drive. The achievement of instructor objectives is another motivating factor for students. The motivation of the students might also be impacted by the feedback given by the teachers. If their teachers review their work and provide explicit comments about their good and poor parts, students will become more motivated. According to Ref. [33], subjects that are very pertinent to the students' daily lives are another source of motivation. Given the significance of high motivation, we must set up an effective educational environment to boost students' drive for language learning.

The researchers in this study investigated the effects of utilizing the mind-mapping technique on fostering EFL students' vocabulary retention and recall, learning motivation, and WTC in Iran due to the essential part of the discussed variables in teaching and learning language.

This research is noteworthy as it examines four dependent variables (vocabulary recall, vocabulary retention, learning motivation, and WTC) and one independent variable (mind-mapping) at the same time. Its discoveries can contribute both theoretical and practical knowledge to the existing literature. Furthermore, the outcomes can be beneficial to both educators and students in utilizing the mind-mapping technique in English instruction and learning.

2. Review of the literature

Compared to other reading techniques like skimming, scanning, taking notes, etc., learning through images aids pupils in understanding language more efficiently. [34]. claimed that studies in psychology and education show that pictorial learning is a suitable way to teach language to students of all ages. In order to better understand passages for information such as major opinions supporting facts, details, views, relationships, and inconsistencies, it is helpful to assist pupils in organizing the content. Ref. [35] believed that learners are three types, (1) the learners who learn when they see something (as visualizers), (2) The learners who are listeners and learn when the listen to something (auditory), and (3) the ones who are kinesthetic learners. They are the learners who learn something by moving, hand using, playing, or dancing.

Teacher may know the learners and classify them based on their styles in learning. Use of mind-maps as visual tools for visual learners could be the best and they may move through the boxes of the maps and this need them to be kinetics as well [36]. In short, we may conclude that, learners who use the mind-map strategies can use their visual and kinetics abilities in learning [11]. If the teacher explains the links between boxes in a map, the learners may arrive at three styles at the same time [37].

One of the visual techniques is mind-mapping. This is an educational tool that lets you create diagrams to visually express your ideas. The diagram focuses on a centrally located key concept so that you can associate specific vocabularies, ideas, or even phrases associated with the key concepts [38]. Some experts such as, Refs. [12,13,14], and [10] considered mind-mapping to be a very useful educational tool. For example, Ref. [12] noted, mind-map is a method which enables L2 students to repeat and retain novel vocabularies in each target language more meaningfully. Via implementing images and graphics, mind-map technique can create a more lively classroom setting that develop both brain function and learner motivation [15].

Via utilizing pictorial cues including colors, forms, and images, mind-map can speed up learning and information retrieval [39]. Young learners can recollect their memories more easily by using mind-maps. According to Ref. [40], mind-map technique is a useful and fun method for training and learning foreign languages since it encourages L2 students to learn and utilize novel vocabularies, themes, thoughts, and concepts on a regular basis and without effort.

One of the inventive strategies that may be used to encourage learning abilities is the employment of mind-mapping techniques. Based on [41], this teaching method is one type of pre-writing activity that teachers typically use to help students in brainstorming, taking notes, and selecting pertinent thoughts to the subjects of writing in a pictorial format. Additionally, this strategy aids pupils in connecting new material to prior knowledge [42,43]. Students can use this method to indicate facts, a subject's overall structure, and each of its component pieces [44]. According to Ref. [45], using this strategy helps learners organize their thoughts to better comprehend perceptions and acquire material in a highly specialized manner [46].

The more proficiently pupils apply mind-mapping strategies, the more their metacognitive abilities advance [47]. Consequently, teaching learners how to use mind-mapping techniques empowers them to identify what they have learned or planned in a clear and original way [48]. Ref. [49] offered pre-class, in-class, and after-class mind-mapping tools for teachers. For the purpose of teaching L2, the mentioned model might be used. Activating prior knowledge on a particular topic that will be the concentration of the L2 classes for the forthcoming sessions includes organizing, planning, arranging the content for learning, preparing the stage for class discussions, and motivating students to practice prior to the classes [50].

Teachers can also design classroom teaching strategies based on mind-maps. They can refer to many other teaching strategies that stimulate creativity, motivation, engagement, cooperation, peripheral and focused learning, and genuine interactions among students, improves target language acquisition by L2 learners. Strategies outside the classroom embrace collaborations, assessments, and understanding. Pupils can simply collaborate on group assignments and projects utilizing free online learning instruments like Exam Time. This tool allows you to share mind-maps with friends and groups [51].

As many scholars have pointed out, applying mind-mapping techniques in the classrooms is of great benefit to EFL students as it enhances their speaking skills [45,52,53], which positively affects their reading abilities [8,54]. Students can enhance their pronunciation [5] and writing abilities [55]. It also serves as a useful learning technique for EFL learners to expand their vocabulary and create summaries [56].

Using mind-mapping techniques in EFL setting helps pupils understand content using different learning materials and organize ideas to improve their professional communication skills [53]. Mind-mapping interventions can also enhance listening skills of learners and their grammar learning [57]. The usefulness of mind-mapping was proven to be a viable instructional way for reducing language anxiety in students [58].

Concerning the impacts of mind-mapping on developing language learning, several investigations were carried out; for instance, Ref. [15] inspected the effects of mind-mapping on learning and teaching. For this purpose, a meta-analysis research was performed and quasi-experimental and experimental investigations were collected. The results indicated that mind-mapping generated constructive impacts on learning and teaching.

In another research, Ref. [59] sought to investigate the effects of mind-mapping on developing vocabulary knowledge of EFL learners. To this end, forty first-year high school boys were conveniently selected and divided into an EG and a CG. Before treatment, the groups underwent a vocabulary pretest written by the researcher. As for the EG, the vocabularies were instructed through different mind-mapping techniques including colors, symbols, designs keywords, chunks, and images. The CG students were trained by a conventional instruction such as translating to L1 and providing antonyms and synonyms. The group then underwent a post-test written by the researcher. The results gained by MANCOVA indicated that utilizing mind-map was an effective method for teaching words and helped EG perform better than the CG on the post-test of vocabulary.

Yet, in another study, [60] conducted a study to see whether the use of mind-mapping techniques increased vocabulary knowledge of the students and to identify differences in vocabulary development among students. In a quasi-experimental research study, using pre- and post-tests for both EG and CG, 38 of UKM pupils were selected. This intervention program consisted of 4-h training program over 4 weeks. The investigation discovered that mind-mapping techniques aided students to promote their vocabulary knowledge. The findings showed that an intervention program that used mind-mapping improved students' vocabulary learning and improved the students' ability to get better band scores in vocabulary posttest compared to the CG.

In one more related research, [61] explored the impacts of mind and concept maps instructions on narrative and descriptive writing in EFL students. For doing this, 60 EFL students were chosen from a pool of 100 participants based on pre-test results. The pupils were then split into two EG of 30 students each at random. To ensure that the students' writing performance was consistent from the beginning, they examined the written portion of the PET data independently and compared the means of the two classes using an independent-samples t-test. Three days a week, each group received the same amount of intervention, with one group receiving Concept Map therapy and the other receiving mind-mapping instruction. Both groups took a posttest that included descriptive and descriptive texts at the conclusion of the treatment. A remarkable variation between the groups was evident in the data. The mind-mapping class outperformed the concept mapping class with upper mean scores on both post-tests.

Ref. [62] tried to examine the effects of using a mind-mapping strategy on improving the speaking ability of EFL students in flipped and traditional classrooms. They went one step further and examined learner personalities. To fulfill this objective, 80 EFL elementary students studying English at Payame-e-Noor University were assigned to four identical groups regarding their personality types. A speaking test was performed and the outcomes showed that the groups were at the same level of speaking capabilities before treatment was administered. After pretesting, the group received treatment. Traditional group participants drew a mind-map for each topic of the presentation, while flipped group participants brainstormed on the topic using digital mind-mapping techniques. After 12 treatment sessions, the group took the posttest. The outcomes showed significant differences in the students' speaking grades in terms of grammar, comprehension, pronunciation, fluency, and vocabulary. The results indicated that introvert students in the flipping class benefited better, whereas extroverts benefited from the traditional class treatment.

In the same line, Alba [63] investigated applying mind-mapping software in learning vocabulary among EFL learners. In doing so, 62 learners were selected and assigned to two experimental and control groups. The EG got vocabulary instruction in the passages of the learners' textbooks and several mind-maps were used in the class. Twelve passages including their new words were covered in 12 sessions. The CG received traditional method of reviewing the definitions, using the dictionary, and teachers' explanation. After treatment sessions, a vocabulary post-test was designed based on the reading passages and administered to the groups. Independent and paired samples t-tests were used to compare learners' means of pre and posttests. Findings revealed that the EG could perform better than the CG at the significant level. Implications of the research suggested that learning vocabulary can be boosted if effective software like mind-mapping used in teaching processes.

Recently, Ref. [64] looked at how the mind-mapping technique affected acquiring ESP vocabulary. In order to analyze a cohort of 74 ESP pupils that were divided into an EG and a CG, this research applied a quasi-experimental pre-test—post-test approach. While the controlled group received conventional teaching, the EG learned mind-mapping techniques. Both a pre-test and a post-test were used to gauge the efficiency of the mind-mapping approach. The study’s findings showed that there were substantial differences between the pre-test and post-test of the EG. However, there were no discernible differences between the EG and CGs' post-test mean scores, signifying that both conventional vocabulary teaching and mind-mapping methods had comparable impacts on language development.

After an exact review, we figured out that using mind-mapping technique generated positive effects on language learning. Despite its effectiveness on language skills, there have not been sufficient studies on mind-mapping technique and language learning. We could not find any research in the literature review that has examined the effects of mind-mapping on the variables vocabulary recall, vocabulary retention, learning motivation, and WTC) simultaneously. Therefore, the current study decided to examine the effects of mind-mapping on improving Iranian EFL pupils' vocabulary retention and recall, as well as their motivation to study the language, and their WTC. Accordingly, the following research questions were posed:

RQ1

Does the mind-mapping technique enhance Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention?

RQ2

Does the mind-mapping technique improve Iranian EFL learners' language learning motivation?

RQ3

Does the mind-mapping technique boost Iranian EFL learners' WTC?

Based on the research questions raised, three null hypotheses were offered:

H1

The mind-mapping technique does not enhance Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention.

H2

The mind-mapping technique does not improve Iranian EFL learners' language learning motivation.

H3

The mind-mapping technique does not boost Iranian EFL learners' WTC.

3. Method

3.1. Research design

The study used a quantitative method for data collecting. In exact words, the study’s design was based on a quasi-experimental approach (pre-test- treatment-post-test) where one EG and one CG were formed. Overall, this research employed a quasi-experimental design to reveal the effects of the mind-mapping on EFL learners' vocabulary retention and recall, learning motivation, and WTC.

3.2. Participants

The present study was run in the setting of Alvand English Language Institution, Abadan, Iran. This non-profit language institute has many branches across the country. Researchers employed a random sampling technique to select 98 EFL students. As Riazi (2016) noted, this sampling method is used when all individuals have an equal chance to take part in a study. The primary purpose of selecting the participants was their availability to the researchers. The ages of the participants ranged from 20 to 29 years old. The native language of the participants was Persian and they could only learn English within the institute. To make the participants homogeneous in terms of language proficiency, they took a sample of OQPT and those whose scores were not extreme were invited to the main research. It is noteworthy that the third researcher who had extensively studied the mind-mapping technique administered the interventions for the EG (n = 30) and the CG (n = 30). The researchers made sure to keep the identities and results of the participants confidential and anonymous. They also informed the participants of the results of the study. It is important to note that the Research Ethics Review Committee at Ayatollah Ozma Borujerdi University made sure that all ethical standards were met (Approval No. 88/09/394719). Ayatollah Ozma Borujerdi University follows approved ethical standards which are in line with the protocols of the National Research Committee and are comparable with the 1963 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments.

3.3. Instruments

In the present study, the OQPT was utilized initially to standardize the participants. Its purpose was to facilitate the researchers in choosing identical individuals. Those who obtained a rating of between 40 and 47 out of 60 multiple-choice items were classified as the intermediate and served as the subjects in the research study.

To collect the required information, researchers created a vocabulary pre-test consisting of 20 multiple choice questions.

The vocabulary test was developed based on the course book, namely ‘504 Essential Words' used by the participants. The researchers evaluated the validity and reliability of the test. They had three experts review the test’s face and content validity. Afterward, it was tested on a similar group, using the same textbook and level, to pilot it. Furthermore, the reliability of the test was determined using the KR-21 formula, which resulted in a score of 0.82. The researchers administered a vocabulary test to measure the immediate and delayed effects of the treatment on the subjects' ability to recall and retain vocabulary. The test was a modified version of the pre-test and had a similar duration and item count. However, the questions and answers were arranged differently to ensure that the subjects could not simply remember the answers from the pre-test. The researchers considered the post-test reliable and valid since it was based on a modified version of the pre-test.

The other instrument employed in this study was a questionnaire developed by Ref. [65]. It was used to gauge the motivation of the participants. It comprised of 74 items with a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from totally disagree (1) to totally agree (5). The questionnaire’s validity was confirmed by five English teachers, and its reliability was tested using Cronbach Alpha (r = 0.85).

The final instrument utilized in the study was a WTC questionnaire that was created and validated by Ref. [66]. This questionnaire had previously been used in other investigations, and the researchers considered it to be a valid tool for the current study. In order to ensure that all participants could understand the survey questions, the questionnaire was translated from English to Persian. The questionnaire featured 12 items and participants could respond in either English or Persian using a 6-point Likert scale. The translation was evaluated by a team of professionals who were fluent in English. The questionnaire’s reliability was determined using Cronbach Alpha, resulting in an r = 0.87. Additionally, it is worth noting that both the pre-test and post-test were conducted using the same WTC questionnaire at the start and end of the study intervention.

3.4. Data collection procedures

To run this research, the researchers took some steps. In the first step, the homogenized the EFL learners (n = 98) through the administration of the OQPT. 60 EFL students whose scores fell around the mean score were selected and randomly assigned into an EG (n = 30) and a CG (n = 30). In the second step, the researchers administered the vocabulary recall and retention test, learning motivation questionnaire, and WTC questionnaire. In the third step, the interventions were offered to the two groups in 23 1-h sessions held twice a week.

The instructor shared a mind-map as an example to show the EFL learners how to make vocabulary coordinators in the classroom. The EG was divided into five equal groups before creating the mind-maps to make better use of them to teach the intended vocabulary chosen from sourced from the 504 Essential Vocabulary Book. The primary concept was positioned at the center by the EFL learners and connected to other terms that were more closely linked in several directions. Less connected terms were also associated with the central words but deemed secondary. They had the option of utilizing different shapes like rectangles, circles, triangles, and clouds to organize their mind maps. The instructor had them employ pencils to sketch and construct mind maps for the purpose of making alterations more convenient. Later, The EG was taught vocabulary with different techniques of mind mapping. They consisted of designs, colors, brainstorming, keywords, symbols, chunking, and images. One or two key themes and multiple secondary themes were taught per lesson. Once the EFL learners had created mind maps for each theme, they were then asked to connect and associate them by selecting the most relevant words from the surrounding topics. After that, the instructor didn’t set any specific guidelines on how the EFL learners had to create their mind-maps on either A4 paper or a whiteboard. The EFL learners received feedback from their peers and teacher within each subgroup. Once finished, the instructor assessed the overall quality of the mind-maps and encouraged the EFL learners to improve them for the next session. Afterward, some of the groups were invited to present their mind maps on the whiteboard to the other groups and receive feedback for improvement. The EFL learners were advised to use various colors, shapes, or branches to highlight the significance of word associations. As for the EG, they were specifically taught to incorporate lines, arrows, branches, and other symbols to illustrate the connection between the central word, primary words (nodes), and secondary words (nodes). The significance of teamwork in generating comprehensive mind-maps was emphasized by the teacher. In case the group required guidance or support, the instructor helped them by explaining terms and potential links among the terms. After making their mind-maps, the EG was given some post-activity assignments. They were instructed to speak about the mind-map and main concept or keyword to improve their retention. The instructor encouraged some EFL learners to describe or explain their mind-maps, and also suggested drawing symbols or pictures to enhance visual appeal if possible. Additionally, the instructor prompted the EFL learners to have conversations about topics that interested them and were linked to their mind-maps.

The CG was taught using traditional techniques such as translating into their native language and providing synonyms and antonyms. No mind-mapping was used in this group. The class was led by the instructor, who would translate English words into Persian and sometimes give synonyms and antonyms for the words. No other special methods were used to teach vocabulary. The EFL learners were expected to remember the words based on their Persian translation equivalents or synonyms, and they did not receive any feedback from the instructor. This same approach was used for all the class sessions.

In the final step, a post-test for vocabulary was given to determine if the EFL learners had improved their recall during the instruction and if there were any differences in vocabulary comprehension between the two groups. Following this, both groups were given the same questionnaires to determine their motivation and WTC. To evaluate the impact of mind-mapping techniques on vocabulary retention, a delayed post-test was given to both groups.

3.5. Data analysis procedures

The study data was analyzed using SPSS software version 22 in order to respond to the research questions. The data’s normality distribution was confirmed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, and descriptive statistics such as mean scores and standard deviation were collected. Parametric statistics such as independent and paired samples t-tests were applied based on the normality distribution to investigate the impact of teaching through mind-mapping on the participants' vocabulary retention and recall, learning motivation, and WTC.

4. Results

This section presents the results. To analyze the data and obtain the final conclusions, several paired samples t-tests and independent samples t-tests were conducted and the results are shown in the tables below.

Table 1 revealed that the mean vocabulary pre-test score for the EG was 14.13, while the CG had a mean score of 13.60. It is evident that there was no significant difference between the two groups before the treatment. This table implies that all participants had a similar level of vocabulary knowledge prior to the treatment.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of vocabulary pre-tests of both groups.

Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Experimental	30	14.13	2.08	.37
Control	30	13.60	2.07	.37

Since Sig (0.32) was higher than 0.05, the independent samples t-test findings in Table 2 demonstrate that the two groups had the same level of vocabulary knowledge on the pre-test. This implies that both the EG and the CG had the same amount of knowledge about vocabulary prior to the commencement of the instruction.

Table 2.

Inferential statistics of vocabulary pre-tests of both groups.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	.01	.89	.99	58	.32	.53	.53	−.54	1.60
	Equal variances not assumed			.99	58.00	.32	.53	.53	−.54	1.60

Table 3 indicates that the mean score of the EG on the immediate vocabulary post-test was 16.90, while the CG had a mean score of 14.53. This suggests that the two groups had different results on the immediate post-test for vocabulary.

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics of immediate vocabulary post-tests of both groups.

	Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Scores	Experimental	30	16.90	1.72	.31
	Control	30	14.53	2.40	.43

The data from Table 4 suggests that the EG had a better performance on the immediate vocabulary post-test than the CG, as evidenced by the significance level of 0.00 being lower than 0.05. This improvement can be attributed to the advantages of the mind-mapping technique.

Table 4.

Inferential statistics of immediate vocabulary post-tests of both groups.

		Levene's Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	2.58	.11	4.37	58	.00	2.36	.54	1.28	3.44
	Equal variances not assumed			4.37	52.68	.00	2.36	.54	1.28	3.45

The mean scores and standard deviations for the delayed vocabulary post-tests for both groups are shown in the table above. The mean score for the EG was 17.40, while the mean score for the CG was 14.70 (Table 5). This indicates a disparity in the performance of the two groups on the delayed vocabulary post-tests.

Table 5.

Descriptive statistics of delayed vocabulary post-tests of both groups.

	Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Scores	Experimental	30	17.40	1.69	.30
	Control	30	14.70	2.01	.36

The delayed vocabulary post-tests of both the EG and the CG were compared using an independent samples t-test in Table 6. It is evident that there is a significant difference in the outcomes of the two groups on the delayed vocabulary post-tests because the Sig value (0.00) was less than.05. On the post-test, the EG actually achieved better results than the CG.

Table 6.

Inferential statistics of delayed vocabulary post-tests of both groups.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	2.17	.14	5.61	58	.00	2.70	.48	1.73	3.66
	Equal variances not assumed			5.61	56.29	.00	2.70	.48	1.73	3.66

A paired-samples t-test was conducted to assess if the CG had improved on their post-test. The results indicated that there was no difference between the pre- and post-tests of this group. The second paired-sample t-test in the table above revealed that the EG’s vocabulary had increased due to the treatment, as the Sig (0.00) was lower than 0.05 (Table 7).

Table 7.

Paired samples inferential statistics of vocabulary pre and post-tests of both group.

	Paired Differences					t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
				Lower	Upper
Control pre-post	−.33	1.02	.18	−.71	.05	1.77	29	.08
Experimental pre-post	−2.33	2.10	.38	−3.11	−1.54	6.06	29	.00

The descriptive data for the two groups' performance on the motivation pre-test was presented in Table 8. The mean score for the EG was 114.90, with a standard deviation of 20.12. The CG had a mean score of 113.86 and a standard deviation of 20.87. This illustrates the level of success achieved by both groups on the motivation pre-test.

Table 8.

Descriptive statistics of motivation pre-tests of both groups.

	Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Scores	Experimental	30	114.90	20.12	3.67
	Control	30	113.86	20.87	3.81

A t-test for independent samples was used in Table 9 to show the differences between the two groups on the motivation pre-test. The difference between the groups on the motivation pre-test was not significant since the Sig (0.84) was higher than 0.05.

Table 9.

Inferential statistics of motivation pre-tests of both groups.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	.03	.85	.19	58	.84	1.03	5.29	−9.56	11.62
	Equal variances not assumed			.19	57.92	.84	1.03	5.29	−9.56	11.62

The table above displays the descriptive statistics (mean scores and standard deviations) for both groups on the motivation post-tests. The mean score for the EG was 125.30, while the mean score for the CG was 116.43 (Table 10). The difference between the two groups' mean scores implies that they had different results on the motivation post-tests.

Table 10.

Descriptive statistics of motivation post-tests of both groups.

	Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Scores	Experimental	30	125.30	24.96	4.55
	Control	30	116.43	18.81	3.43

An independent samples t-tests was utilized to ascertain if there were any significant disparities between the mean scores of the two groups (Table 11). The results of the test showed that the EG performed better on the motivation post-test than the CG.

Table 11.

Inferential statistics of motivation post-tests of both groups.

		Levene's Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	T	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	3.04	.08	1.55	58	.12	8.86	5.70	−2.55	20.29
	Equal variances not assumed			1.55	53.91	.12	8.86	5.70	−2.57	20.31

A paired samples t-test was used in the table above to compare the CG’s pre- and post-test results. The pre- and post-test differences for this group were found to be significant since the Sig value (0.02) was less than 0.05, and the same was true for the EG’s pre- and post-test differences, as the Sig value (0.00) was also less than 0.05 (Table 12). It is evident that the treatment had a positive effect on the performances of both groups, helping them to increase their language learning motivation.

Table 12.

Paired samples inferential statistics of motivation pre and post-tests of both group.

	Paired Differences					t	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)
	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
				Lower	Upper
Control pre-post	−2.56	5.88	1.07	−4.76	−.36	2.38	29	.02
Experimental Pre-post	−10.40	17.33	3.16	−16.87	−3.92	3.28	29	.00

The descriptive statistics for the WTC pre-test for both groups are presented in Table 13. The mean score for the experimental group (EG) that used mind-maps was 20.76, while the mean score for the control group (CG) that used non-mind-maps was 19.60. This implies that the two groups had a similar starting point before the intervention began.

Table 13.

Descriptive statistics of WTC pre-tests of both groups.

Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Experimental	30	20.76	8.49	1.55
Control	30	19.60	6.84	1.24

A t-test was conducted in Table 14 to compare the variance between the two groups' WTC pre-test results. The difference between the groups was not found to be statistically significant as the Sig (0.56) was higher than 0.05. In reality, the two groups performed similarly on the WTC pre-test.

Table 14.

Inferential statistics of WTC pre-tests of both groups.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
Scores	Equal variances assumed	.99	.32	.58	58	.56	1.16	1.99	−2.81	5.15
	Equal variances not assumed			.58	55.47	.56	1.16	1.99	−2.82	5.15

The results of the WTC post-test for both groups are presented in Table 15. The mean score for the mind-mapping group was 35.50, while the mean score for the CG (non-mind-mapping) was 20.46. This suggests that the mind-mapping group had a better performance than the CG in the WTC post-test.

Table 15.

Descriptive statistics of WTC post-tests of both groups.

	Groups	N	Means	Std. Deviations	Std. Error Means
Scores	Experimental	30	35.50	14.30	2.61
	Control	30	20.46	7.37	1.34

Table 16 indicates that the difference between the two groups was statistically significant at (0.05). The mind-mapping group demonstrated a higher level of performance on the WTC post-test, and the treatment augmented their inclination to communicate more.

Table 16.

Inferential statistics of WTC post-tests of both groups.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	T	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
scores	Equal variances assumed	7.54	.00	5.11	58	.00	15.03	2.93	9.15	20.91
	Equal variances not assumed			5.11	43.39	.00	15.03	2.93	9.11	20.95

Two paired samples t-tests were utilized in the table above to compare the pre- and post-test results of each group (Table 17). The difference between the pre-test and post-test of the mind-mapping group was statistically significant because the Sig value (0.00) was less than 0.05. The difference between the pre-test and post-test of the CG, however, was not statistically significant because the Sig value (0.07) was higher than 0.05.

Table 17.

Paired samples inferential statistics of WTC pre and post-tests of both group.

	Paired Differences					t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
				Lower	Upper
conpre–compost	−.86	2.60	.47	−1.84	.10	−1.81	29	.07
expre–expost	−14.73	16.79	3.06	−21.00	−8.46	−4.80	29	.00

In conclusion, the results indicated that the mind-mapping group surpassed the non-mind-mapping group on the post-tests in terms of vocabulary retention and recall, learning motivation, and WTC. Therefore, it can be deduced that mind-mapping is an effective approach for EFL learners to enhance their vocabulary retention and recall, learning motivation, and WTC.

5. Discussion

As mentioned earlier, in the study, the first research question was whether mind-mapping technique enhanced the Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention. The results showed that the group who received instruction through the mind-mapping technique performed better than the CG in their vocabulary recall and retention in the post-test. Essentially, EFL learners who were taught using the mind-mapping technique were able to remember a greater amount of vocabulary by the end of the interventions. These results are consistent with previous studies [[67], [68], [69], [70]] that have supported the positive impact of mind-mapping on English language learning. Furthermore, the findings are also in line with those of [59], which shows that using mind-mapping to learn English words has significantly positive effects. In addition, the findings of this study align with the research of [61] which showed that the use of mind-mapping technique significantly improved the writing skills of EFL learners. Additionally, the results are consistent with [62], whose study demonstrated the positive impact of employing mind-mapping strategy on the development of speaking skills among EFL students. Similarly, Ref. [37] found that both male and female students who were trained using diverse mind-mapping strategies learned English words better compared to those who received word instruction via concept mapping strategies. Furthermore, the outcomes of this study are in line with [63], revealing that students who utilized mind-mapping software were able to learn and remember more vocabulary. Correspondingly, [64] indicated a significant difference between the post-test mean scores of the experimental group and the control group in favor of the experimental group, which is consistent with the results of this research.

The second research question looked into if mind-mapping technique enhanced the Iranian EFL learners' learning motivation. The results demonstrated that the experimental group had significantly higher levels of learning motivation compared to the control group. This suggests that the EFL learners who were taught using mind-mapping technique gained a higher level of motivation after completing the interventions. The findings of this study are supported by Ref. [75], which showed a positive impact of implementing the mind-mapping technique on the writing interest of Saudi EFL learners. Additionally, the achieved results align with [76], whose study indicated that implementing the mind-mapping technique increased the motivation of EFL students in writing. Similarly, the findings of this study support those of [77], which showed that using mind-mapping technique in the teaching of writing descriptive texts was effective in improving the motivation of EFL learners. Additionally, this study’s results are consistent with [78], whose research documented that the implementation of the mind-mapping technique led to a significant improvement in L2 students' writing performance and motivation.

The third research question examined whether the mind-mapping technique improved the Iranian EFL learners' WTC. The answer to this question was affirmative, indicating that the experimental group outperformed the control group in terms of the gains in WTC after the completion of the interventions. In other words, the findings showed that the application of the mind-mapping technique made the participants more eager to learn more vocabulary. Additionally, the results of this research are in line with the findings of [79], which revealed that the mind-mapping technique helped the EFL learners to comprehend, integrate and clarify accounting concepts and also increase their enthusiasm for learning accounting. The findings of this study are in agreement with those of [80], demonstrating that the application of the mind-mapping technique had a positive effect on students' self-monitoring, self-efficacy, and achievement. Furthermore, the results of the study are in harmony with the findings of [81], which discovered that the EFL learners trained through the mind-mapping technique were more self-assured in speaking English.

A line of discussion for the obtained findings may be attributed to the view that the mind-mapping technique might provide visual representations that lead to successful language learning among the EFL learners [71,72]. To put it another way, in addition to the findings, it may be argued that the graphical depictions of concepts could have acted as mnemonics to help the EFL learners remember the concepts. Furthermore, it may be argued that the mind-maps may have aided the EG in retaining vocabulary in their long-term memory for a long period of time. Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that these mind-maps might have a memory role in recalling the intended words. Another line of discussion may be that the implementation of the mind-mapping technique might have been used to record associations and connections and reinforce them in the EFL students' brains [59]. In other words, the mind-mapping technique was a kind of semantic map, which likely helped the EFL learners in the EG to recognize semantic relationships between vocabularies and their common collocations. By utilizing the mind-mapping technique, the EFL learners might have been able to indirectly and directly draw attention to the semantic differences and similarities among vocabulary.

In comparison to traditional methods, the mind-mapping technique could have been more suitable to encourage the EFL learners' creativity. It can be suggested that the use of images, symbols, and colors could have attracted the students' attention and made learning more enjoyable. Furthermore, the mind-mapping technique could have assisted the EFL learners to remember words more quickly. In addition, the results may suggest that the mind-mapping technique could have increased the creativity and efficiency of the EFL learners, which could have resulted in higher grades. The findings suggest that the mind-map technique could be especially beneficial for visual learners who prefer to view information in the form of images, diagrams, etc. rather than listening to it. This technique could help EFL learners to make connections between previously learned words and new words, and to apply that knowledge to other situations. According to Ref. [5], the mind-mapping approach could be a highly effective way to help EFL learners create, conceptualize, and organize their ideas. As the EFL learners were able to significantly increase their vocabulary, this could lead to an increase in their learning motivation and WTC.

6. Conclusion

The results showed that the mind-mapping technique was beneficial for improving the EFL learners' vocabulary learning, learning motivation, and WTC. The EFL learners who were trained using the mind-mapping technique were able to enhance their vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and WTC. The findings suggest that the mind-mapping technique may be a suitable and effective technique for second language (L2) learning as it can motivate the EFL learners to think about the topics before teaching the target materials. This is likely due to the fact that the mind-mapping technique reflects the cognitive processes that people go through when developing comprehension and allows students to recognize connections between ideas [73]. The results of the study suggest a few implications. Firstly, material developers should take into account that the use of pictorial representations of target words through the mind-mapping technique may be advantageous if it leads to the formation of a verbal context. Secondly, EFL teachers can benefit from the findings by understanding that the mind-mapping technique can be most effective when task-based learning and problem-solving learning are the objectives of instruction. In other words, by utilizing the mind-mapping technique, EFL teachers can have enjoyable and relaxed classes while teaching. They can attempt to introduce their students to creative teaching methods such as the mind-mapping technique. Thirdly, EFL students can take advantage of the findings that the mind-mapping technique can enhance their productivity and creativity. EFL students become inspired to study more when their ideas are organized into a vivid and illuminating diagram because they can almost immediately observe the outcomes of their effort. Furthermore, they can divide more complex topics into related parts and analyze the connections between them using colors, images, and sub-branches of the hierarchy with the help of mind-maps. To put it another way, EFL learners can use the mind-mapping technique to better their language learning because it can be more attractive to them and can involve them in the learning process. Finally, the mind-mapping technique is advantageous for EFL learners since it can raise their motivation, reduce their anxiety level, and promote their visual and verbal literacy.

It is worth noting that there are some limitations to this investigation that should be taken into account in future studies. To begin with, the sample size was relatively small, meaning that the results may not be applicable to a larger population of students. To increase the generalizability of the results, further research should be conducted in other areas. Additionally, the intervention only lasted 23 sessions, so further studies with longer interventions should be conducted. Moreover, the participants were limited to intermediate students, so the findings may not be applicable to learners at other proficiency levels. To address this, more research should be done to explore the effects of the mind-mapping technique on EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and WTC at beginner and advanced levels. Additionally, this study was only conducted on male EFL learners, so further studies should include female EFL learners. Lastly, since this study was quantitative, other researchers can use qualitative designs such as interviews and class observations to gain a deeper understanding of the effectiveness of the mind-mapping technique on EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention, learning motivation, and WTC.

Author contribution statement

Rui Feng: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Haroon N. Alsager, Zeinab Azizi: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.

Leeda Sarabani: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This study is supported via funding from Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University Project Number (PSAU 2023 /R/1444).

Data availability statement

Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in article.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper