Table 1.
Plasmodium Species | Severity | Distribution | Innate Immunity | Humoral Immunity | Major Involved Pathway | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P. falciparum | High | Africa, Asia, and Latin America | Neutrophils, monocytes, and NK cells | Long-lived plasma B cells and memory B cells; antibodies | Toll, immune deficiency (Imd), Janus kinase (JNK), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) | [52,53] |
P. vivax | Moderate | Asia, Latin America, Africa | Cytokines, dendritic cells | B cells and antibodies | IFN-α/IFN-γ and TCR pathway, MAPK6/MAPK4 signalling | [46,54] |
P. ovale | Low–moderate | Africa, Asia | NA | NA | NA | |
P. malariae | Low | Africa, Asia, and Latin America | NA | NA | NA | |
P. knowlesi | Moderate–high | Southeast Asia | NA | NA | NA |
(NA = Not available).