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Cellular toxicity mechanism of various nanoparticles in plants. [A]—Direct attachment of NPs to the cell surface releases metal ions which enter through ion channels and accumulate in cell wall intracellular space and vacuoles. Uptake and accumulation of NPs varies with the characteristics of NPs (shape, size, surface and charge). [B]—NP stress causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and induces damaging responses [217] available at CC BY 4.0.
